Visual Communication 2014 Abstracts
Unwitting Investigators: Documentary Filmmakers as Investigative Journalists • Jesse Abdenour, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill • This paper makes a case for documentaries as a new form of investigative journalism. If investigative journalism is declining, as some critics charge, documentaries could be “filling the gap.” Based on inductive analysis of qualitative interviews with documentary filmmakers, this study found that although documentarians do not see themselves as investigative journalists, they approach their work in a similar fashion and often use similar storytelling techniques.
Watchdog, voyeur, or censure? An eye-tracking research study of graphic photographs in the news media • Nicole Dahmen, University of Oregon • One of the longest-running ethical debates in visual journalism is the extent to which graphic and/or violent photos should be present in our news media. The research uses a 2 (level of graphicness) x 3 (story topic) experimental design to test for media effects of graphic photos. The research also integrates eye-tracking data—a unique approach to understanding the effects of graphic photos on participants.
Picturing Kennedy: Photographic framing in the 50-year commemorative coverage of the assassination of JFK • Nicole Dahmen, University of Oregon; Hannah McLain, LSU • As we remembered Kennedy 50 years later, this study sought to understand how commemorative journalism visually framed our collective remembrance, through photographs deemed both iconic and untraditional. Analysis of 905 photos found that iconic photos played a critical role, but they did not represent the entirety of the coverage. The photographic framing covered all aspects of the story, but it emphasized the media’s role in the telling–and subsequent shaping of public understanding–of the assassination.
Sticking it to Obamacare: The visual rhetoric of Affordable Care Act advertising in social media • Janis Teruggi Page, George Washington University; Margaret Duffy, Missouri School of Journalism; Greg Perreault, Missouri School of Journalism • In 2013, video ads attacking and supporting the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) appeared. Through the lens of Symbolic Convergence Theory and Visual Rhetoric, this study found visual narratives using cultural appropriation, incongruity, and dark humor that propelled anti-Obamacare ads to social media sharing. The analysis points to the potential consequences of powerful and well-funded individuals and groups skillfully manipulating social media with visual rhetoric that benefits their causes and beliefs.
Graphic deception: Individuals’ reaction to deceptive information graphics • Nicholas Geidner, University of Tennessee; Jaclyn Cameron, University of Tennessee • This study examines individuals’ understanding and judgment of news information graphics designed in a purposefully deceptive manner. An experimental design was utilized to examine the effects of deceptive design practices on the amount of time the user spent on the graphic, information recall, and perceptions of credibility. Further, we examined these effects in the context of two types of news stories (i.e., general and political news). Using a student sample (N = 239), it was found that recalled more information from the bias graphic and found it less credible than the non-bias graphic. The implications of these findings for both academic researchers and working journalists are discussed.
30-Second Political Strategy: Videostyle of Political Television Spots • Sang Chon Kim, University of Oklahoma; Doyle Yoon, University of Oklahoma; Joonil Kim, University of Oklahoma • By content-analyzing political television spots for the 2008 and 2012 U.S. presidential campaign, the current study examined and compared verbal, nonverbal, and production styles (1) between incumbent and challenger ads and (2) between Democratic and Republican ads. A total of 259 political television spots for the three candidates—Obama, McCain, and Romney—were analyzed. Significant differences were found in videostyles between the 2008 and 2012 Obama ads and between Democratic and Republican ads. These analyses help not only to identify dominant trends in recent political campaigns (i.e., recent political advertising), but also to ascertain how different campaign strategies reflect different political positions (i.e., Obama campaigned as a challenger in 2008 and as an incumbent in 2012). More implications are discussed.
Understanding Digital and Participatory Communication by Social Media and Prosumption Practices via Video Ethnography • Sunny S. K. LAM, The School of Arts & Social Sciences, The Open University of Hong Kong; Jo Yung, Ipsos Hong Kong Limited • The new media system/environment is a result of collective knowledge by the wisdom of crowds and Web 2.0 participatory cultures, and a result of convergence of media, communication and content production/consumption (prosumption) by mediation, remediation and mediatization. User-generated media by prosumption activities provide new sources of online information by consumers/prosumers who are actively educating each other about branding and imaging, products and services, lifestyles and personalities, and social and political issues via interactive conversations. The resulting electronic word-of-mouth and viral propagation of the Internet-based social media reveals a new concept and phenomenon in digital communication and marketing of important implications to both marketers and academic scholars. This article explores social media and digital communication within the prosumption dynamics in the transmedia age, and exemplifies an innovative methodological collision of academic and market research to study prosumption behaviors on social media via video ethnography.
The effects of online news package structure on attitude, attention, and comprehension • Karen McIntyre, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Spencer Barnes, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Laura Ruel, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • This study examined two online news package designs and their effects on users’ attitudes, comprehension, and attention. Results revealed that different aspects of comprehension (recognition and inference) were influenced by the interaction between website design and attention. Users who spent at least 10 minutes browsing were better able to recognize facts after looking at a single-page, scroll-through site, whereas those same users showed a deeper understanding of content after looking at a multiple-page, click-through site.
Photos of the Day Galleries: Representing a More Nuanced World • Jennifer Midberry, Temple University • This content analysis of images from Photos of the Day online galleries from The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times, and the Washington Post investigates whether such galleries present the world outside of the U.S. as negatively as the wining images of the Pulitzer Prize and POYi contests do. The results indicate that Photos of the Day galleries are a rare space in U.S. photojournalism where international news is presented in a nuanced manner.
The Wedding Video as Personal Interaction: Extending Dramaturgy to the Social Media World • Michael O’Donnell, University of St. Thomas • Erving Goffman first proposed using the theater as an analogy to explore human interaction in 1959. Since Goffman’s ideas were published, dramaturgical social analysis has been applied to the study of the work place, prisons, schools, churches and politics. Goffman applied the structure and terminology of the theater to “face-to-face” interactions, each interaction “roughly defined as the reciprocal influence of individuals upon one another’s actions when in one another’s immediate physical presence.” Much has changed since 1959 in the way we interact with one another, most notably in how social media has become an important, if not primary, means if personal interaction for millions of people. This study explores one particular niche of social media, the video sites of YouTube and Vimeo, and one particular type of personal expression, the wedding video. These videos represent a shift in how many of us express one of the most intimate and sacred life events, marriage. Goffman’s idea of theater as an analogy for interaction has been turned on its head. Today’s wedding videos demonstrate how the theater, or more broadly, the world of entertainment, has become a template for behavior, not just a useful analogy. Even beyond that, personal interaction through social media is calculated not just to mimic theater but also to be theater — to entertain. In this regard, the ideal performance, or ceremony, of the traditional wedding has been sublimated to producing a theatrical video that will impress others with the couple’s creativity, talent and “hipness.”
Picturing Health and Community: A Visual Perspective of Photovoice Missouri • Tatsiana Karaliova; Heesook Choi; Mikkel Christensen, University of Missouri; Frank Michael Russell, University of Missouri/Missouri School of Journalism; Ryan Thomas, Missouri School of Journalism • This study examined 434 photographs and captions from 207 participants of the Photovoice Missouri project in urban, suburban, and rural communities. A qualitative textual analysis revealed the potential of photovoice to accumulate social capital as resources that can lead to positive behaviors. The participants expressed concerns about health risks, access to fresh food, and conditions in the communities discouraging physical activities. Considerable differences in concerns and priorities were found between the different types of communities.
Consumer Mood, Thinking Style and Creative Metaphor Techniques in Advertising • Jun Myers; Sela Sar, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign • An experiment was conducted to examine the effect mood and thinking style on the effectiveness of creative metaphor ads. Results demonstrated that overall positive mood state induced higher ad evaluations of creative messages. In addition, consumers’ chronic thinking style (holistic vs. analytical) also significantly interacted with the use of metaphor techniques in the ad with consumers’ mood state to affect their evaluation of the advertisement. The results showed that three predicted hypotheses received partial support. Specifically, the results for ad evaluation were statistically significant. However, the results for purchase intention did not reach statistically significant. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
Darkness Visible; Blindness and Borders/Memories and Movies • David Staton, University of Oregon • Memory is so informed by the visual it’s hard to imagine having recollections without the sense of sight. To be sure, other senses are involved in memory making, but vision is privileged in such inordinate fashion that the noted neuroscientist António Damásio (1999) has written “one might argue that images are the currency of our mind…even the feelings that make up the backdrop of each mental instant are images.” In “In Search of Lost Time” (or “Remembrances of Things Past”) Proust wrote of sensory impressions and lived experience as memoire involontaire; certain actions or particular sensations can awaken these recollections. However, a forced recalling of such moments, in his view, result in a different bringing forth, the memoire voluntaire. Benjamin’s subsequent dissection of Proust’s notions offers a framework to examine notions of looking, learning, living. Imagine, then, if this process of seeing and remembering might be radically interrupted. What becomes of memory if that primal sense is removed from embodied experience, extracted from our stories and language? To further problematize this scenario, imagine the Herculean task of attempting to give visual voice to the memories of a sightless narrator. In short, what might internalized memories of a blind person look like externalized for others to share—how is such a narrative performed? Three films of recent vintage—”Notes on Blindness” (2014), “The Diving Bell and the Butterfly” (2007), and “Blue” (1993)—take on this challenge. A textual analysis of key scenes from each of the films will investigate how the filmmakers articulated this (re)vision as well as point toward thematic linkings between the projects.
What Are Shaping the Ethical Standard? Examining Factors Influencing Public Acceptance of News Photo Alteration • Q. J. Yao, Lamar University; Zhaoxi Liu, Trinity University; David Perlmutter • Public acceptance is gradually established as the ethical standard of news photo editing. It is therefore critical to study what factors impact public acceptance. This paper identifies the perceived prevalence of photo alteration, media credibility, and Photoshop use and knowledge as the major influencers. The study implies the necessity of intervention from scholars, media professionals, and ethical activists, as mere relying on public acceptance may continuously lower the ethical standard for news photo alternation.
When a picture is combined with a thousand words: Effects of visual and verbal arguments in advertisements on audience persuasion • Shuhua Zhou; Cui Zhang; Yeojin Kim, University of Alabama; Lin Yang • Visual arguments have been largely studied in the rhetorical and interpretive literature. In spite of the power of visuals in advertising, visual argument has never been studied along with verbal arguments in advertising. Thorough an experimental study, this study seeks to provide empirical evidence that visual and verbal arguments can both be potent factors affecting users’ perception of and valence toward the ads and the brands, as well as purchase intention. Results largely supported these hypotheses. Implications for future studies are discussed.
Scholastic Journalism 2014 Abstracts
Boobies Are Not Hooters: New Tests for Student Speech Rights • Genelle Belmas, Univ. of Kansas • The Supreme Court in 2014 declined to hear an appeal of the Third Circuit en banc decision in the “I ♥ Boobies!” case, B.H. v. Easton Area School District. However, the decision provided an innovative approach to future student speech cases with some interesting judicial interpretations. This paper examines this case and suggests that courts adopt one of several revised tests when faced with student speech issues that skirt the line between appropriate and inappropriate.
Diversity and journalism pedagogy: Exploring news media representation of disability • Shawn Burns, University of Wollongong • This paper explores diversity studies in broadcast journalism education and seeks to help answer a question faced by teachers: Does the material discussed in class make a difference in their lives? This research is a case study of university broadcast journalism students who took part in classes that explored the representation of people with disability (PWD) in the media. The research sought to explore whether diversity studies resonated in the post-university lives of journalism students.
Comparing National Scholastic Press Association Pacemaker Finalists to the Average School with Student Media • Sarah Cavanah, University of Minnesota • This paper explores the differences between National Scholastic Press Association members, Pacemaker finalists, and different types of awardees to assess how much the organization and its awards represent school diversity among schools with student media opportunities. Logistic regression models show that the awards may be signaling to the general population of schools that scholastic media excellence is found in schools with fewer African American and Hispanic students, as well as schools located in metropolitan regions.
Why be a journalist? Students’ motivations and role conceptions in the new age of journalism • Renita Coleman, University of Texas-Austin; Joon Yea Lee, Department of Communications University of North Alabama; Carolyn Yaschur, Department of Communication Studies Augustana College; Aimee Meader, Mass Communications Winthrop University; Kathleen McElroy, School of Journalism University of Texas- Austin • This study of the motivations and role conceptions of today’s journalists has shown many similarities among students today and yesterday, but significant differences between students and professionals. A new motivation appeared, marked by having experience with journalism at an early age. The students’ ranking of the importance of journalists’ roles compared to professionals showed no significant correlation. Both ranked the Investigative/Interpretive as most important, but professionals ranked the Adversarial role as second while students ranked it last.
Competency-Based Education: Is it the Future of Journalism? • Rocky Dailey • This study examined the concept of competency-based education (CBE) and considered the practicality of its application in journalism education. Programs accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) were asked to participated in the study. The majority of respondents were familiar with CBE, yet did not believe such an approach would work within the ACEJMC standards. Issues with internal compliance, professional acceptance, and traditional higher education structure were also explored.
Influences of Prior Review in the High School Newspaper • Joseph Dennis, The University of Georgia; Carolyn Crist, The University of Georgia • Although not recommended by scholastic press advocates, administrative prior review is a common practice among many high school newspapers. A survey of 158 journalism advisers across the country finds that certain school and newspaper characteristics have no effect on the presence of prior review. However, statistically significant results found prior review more likely to occur among younger advisers, newer advisers, and advisers who believe an adult should have the final say in a newspaper’s publication.
From Print to Digital: Project-Based Learning Framework for Fostering Multimedia Competencies in Journalism Education • Debbie Goh, Nanyang Technological University; Ugur Kale, West Virginia University • This paper examines how project-based learning (PBL) facilitated print journalism students’ transition into producing multimedia news in an iBook. Findings show technological considerations and PBL elements – need to know, driving question, choice, 21st Century skills, inquiry and innovation, feedback and presentation – enhanced multimedia competencies and consciousness. Students met learning objectives when they perceived relevance and had clear driving questions. Choices cultivated ownership and accountability, collaboration and critical thinking. Weaker students expressed need for structured pedagogy.
Quantifying Control: Scholastic Media, Prior Review and Censorship • Mark Goodman; Shelley Blundell, Kent State University; Margaret Cogar, Kent State University • For decades advocates have engaged in an ongoing debate about the threat posed by censorship of high school student media. Yet over those years there have been few attempts to quantify the censorship experienced by these student journalists by asking the students themselves. This paper presents the results of surveys of student media advisers and student journalists at a national high school journalism convention relating to their experiences with prior review and external and self-censorship.
Effectiveness of Pretest/Posttest as an Assessment of Learning Outcome(s) in a Mass Communication Research Course • Jeffrey Hedrick, Jacksonville State University • This research explores longitudinal assessment as a valid indicator of student learning in an undergraduate capstone research course. Pretest/posttest results were gathered from juniors and seniors (N=134) over six semesters, accumulating evidence for compliance with ACEJMC Standard 9 to be included in an accreditation self-study report. The course-embedded assessment focused on three learning objectives: research, statistics, and diversity. The mean results indicated greater improvement in research than statistics, with statistics portion showing more consistent gains.
Exploring the use of corrections on college newspapers’ websites • Kirstie Hettinga, California Lutheran University; Rosemary Clark, The Annenberg School for Communication at University of Pennsylvania • A previous study indicated that college newspapers tend to enjoy perceived levels of credibility on par with their professional, local counterparts, but suggested that quality could be assessed through other means, such as “story accuracy.” This research sought to explore the use of corrections on college newspapers’ websites. Corrections are a mechanism used to amend the record. Previous research has documented the potential for corrections to increase readers’ perceptions of newspaper quality. In a content analysis of College Media Association members’ websites (N = 419), the researchers found that nearly half of the newspapers had no corrections that could be located through search functions. Additionally, the researchers found that the more professional a college publication is—based on frequency of publication, the presence of language regarding accuracy or ethics on its website, and the presence of corrections link—the more likely it was to have corrections on its website.
The iPad as a Pedagogical Tool: Effective or not? • Amanda McClain, Holy Family University • Through two focus groups, this study examines the efficacy of tablets as in-classroom pedagogical tools for a college-level communication course. It finds journalism and communication programs would benefit from providing students with iPads, or a similar Internet-enabled tablet. iPads diminish a potential digital divide; they open up a world of information, help organize students’ lives, and permit convenient participation and learning anywhere. Students participate in the public sphere, putting communication theory into action.
A Collaborative Approach to Experiential Learning in Journalism Newswriting and Editing Classes: A Case Study • Perry Parks, Michigan State University • This case study examines a creative approach by two journalism professors to enhance experiential learning in separate skills-based newswriting and editing courses by collaborating to produce a live online news report from campus each week under a four-hour deadline. The study seeks to build on previous findings that innovative classroom structures and projects that engage students in practical, published journalistic work can have a powerful positive effect for students.
Who are you in the classroom? Avatars for learning and education • Ryan Rogers • Based on recent research concerning avatars, this paper examines how avatars can be used to enhance students’ performance on education related tasks, specifically in journalism classrooms. Study 1 shows that avatar assignment impacts task performance (on reading skill) via perceived difficulty. Study 2 focuses on journalism specific course objectives and shows that avatar assignment can influence perceptions of progress on education tasks. These two experiments show practical tactics for improving performance on educational tasks and also show ways that content producers, like news producers, can enhance audience engagement with content.
Unnamed and at risk? Examining anonymous student speech in the college/university environment • Erica Salkin, Whitworth University; Lindsie Trego, Whitworth University; Kathleen Vincent, Whitworth University • Like many forms of protected speech, anonymous speech does not enjoy the same First Amendment protection when occurring in an academic environment. This paper examines the legal status of anonymous university student speech from a legal as well as practical perspective, exploring both the guidance of common law as well as the level of risk generated by a common forum for anonymous student speech today: Facebook “confessions” sites.
Personal Memory and the Formation of Journalistic Authority: Scholastic Media Coverage of Sandy Hook • David Schwartz, University of Iowa • Drawing on the concepts of journalistic authority, collective memory, and media memory, this study examined the way high school journalists covered the Sandy Hook killings as a means of establishing journalistic authority. Through a textual analysis, this study found that scholastic media used the event to redraw journalistic boundaries to include emotional, autobiographical articles that advocated on behalf of their readers. This study aims to improve understanding of scholastic media during nationally mediated tragedies.
An Online Learning Approach to Community Building among Asian Journalists • Violet Valdez, Ateneo de Manila University • This paper describes a master’s program in journalism designed for professional Asian journalists which has drawn students from 13 Asian countries and is run by faculty members from five countries. The program uses blended learning methods combining synchronous, asynchronous and classroom-based approaches. An exploratory study was conducted to describe the strategies used by the students and teachers to build a community of learners (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000) and hence achieve the program’s learning goals. The study took into consideration cultural differences, in particular, those referring to educational experiences. Results show that the respondents tended to use the strategies of social presence, cognitive presence and teaching presence that were appropriate to their respective class roles and that these strategies tended to reflect dominant cultural traits in Asia.
Public Relations 2014 Abstracts
Open Competition
Patterns of paper productivity and thematic content in the Public Relations Division of AEJMC 2003-2012 • Giselle Auger • Research papers are an indicator of the work being done in academia and often reflect important social changes. Results of this investigation identified thematic differences between the content of top student papers and top faculty papers in the public relations division of AEJMC including differences in the number of nonprofit, relationship management, and corporate social responsibility studies. Moreover, 2009 appears to have been a watershed year as social media appeared for the first time and general research on the Internet peaked. The presence of an ‘invisible college’ of research and influence is also identified.
Perceived sincerity in CSR activities: The contribution of CSR fit, modality interactivity, and message interactivity • Eun Go, Penn State University; Denise Bortree, Penn State University • This study explored how CSR communication in social media can build message credibility and improve organizational attitudes. In particular the study investigated the role of CSR fit, modality interactivity, and message interactivity through a 2 x 2 x 3 experimental design (N=299). The results suggest that promoting good-fit CSR activities improves credibility and attitude. Additional analysis suggests an interaction between CSR fit and message interactivity that makes fit critical in low-interactivity settings. Implications are discussed.
You Know Me Well: A Coorientation Study of Public Relations Professionals’ Relationship with Bloggers • Justin Walden, College at Brockport, SUNY; Denise Bortree, Penn State University; Marcia DiStaso, Penn State University • Drawing from the coorientation framework, this study reports survey findings from two groups: bloggers and public relations professionals. Blogger attitudes toward the quality of their relationship with public relations professionals are compared to the attitudes about the organization-blogger relationship that are held by public relations professionals. Although considerable attention in the literature has been placed on the journalist/public relations professional relationship, scholars have yet to fully investigate the blogger/public relations professional relationship. Implications are discussed.
“Is Apology the Best Policy?” An Experimental Examination of the Effectiveness of Image Repair Strategies during Criminal and Non-Criminal Athlete Transgressions • Kenon Brown, The University of Alabama • Through the use of a 2 X 3 factorial experiment, the researcher examined the effects of response strategies on an athlete’s perceived image after they provide a response when faced with a criminal or a non-criminal transgression. Results showed that the attacking the accuser strategy was just as effective as the mortification strategy in the repair of the athlete’s image overall, as well as when the athlete is faced with a criminal transgression; The bolstering strategy was also the least effective strategy, regardless of the type of transgression. Implications for the empirical examination of response strategies and for strategic communication practitioners are provided.
The interactive role of political ideology and media preference in building trust: A PR perspective • Michael Cacciatore, University of Georgia; Juan Meng, University of Georgia; Alan VanderMolen, Edelman; Bryan Reber • Using survey data, this paper looks at predictors of business trust in the top five countries based on GDP ranking – the United States, China, Japan, Germany, and France. Demographics emerged as significant predictors of trust across countries, while political ideology was a key driver of trust in the U.S. Political ideology also interacted with preferred media choice in predicting trust. Theoretical and practical implications for the field of public relations and public practitioners are offered.
Communicating CSR on social media: Strategies, main actors, and public engagement on corporate Facebook • Moonhee Cho, University of Tennessee; Tiffany Schweickart, University of Florida; Lauren Darm, University of Florida • Based on content analysis of 46 corporate Facebook pages for a one-year period, this study found that corporations communicate non-CSR messages more frequently than CSR messages on social media. When communicating CSR activities, corporations employed the informing strategy more than the interacting strategy and included more internal publics’ activities than that of external publics. This study also found that publics engage more with non-CSR messages than CSR messages, which reflects public cynicism of CSR messages.
Renegade Girl Scouts or a Merit Badge for Spin: (Re)articulating Activism and Public Relations • Pat Curtin, University of Oregon • This paper answers Dozier and Lauzen’s (2000) call for critical theoretical examinations of activism and public relations to provide new perspectives and avoid the paradox inherent in organizational-level analyses. It also fills a literature gap by examining a case of internal activism, thus blurring organizational boundaries and rejecting Us/Other dichotomies. Articulation theory’s role within the cultural-economic model (Curtin & Gaither, 2005, 2007) is expanded to provide a more nuanced understanding of the public relations/activism relationship.
The Role Of Public Relations In Ethnic Advocacy And Activism: A Proposed Research Agenda • Maria De Moya, DePaul University; Vanessa Bravo, Elon University • This essay proposes a research agenda for exploring public relations’ role in ethnic advocacy and activism, as a way to build the field’s knowledge of ethnic public relations. To highlight the potential contribution of public relations to ethnic organizations, the use of media relations and public information tactics by Latino organizations in the U.S., is explored, and the use of public relations by two Latino organizations conducting advocacy efforts in favor of immigration reform are described. Additionally, the authors propose an agenda for exploring how public relations is used by ethnic organizations to advance their goals.
Identifying strategic disconnect: Social media use by banks and its impact on trust • Marcia DiStaso, Penn State University; Chelsea Amaral • This study explored the adoption and use of social media by banks and identified if it corresponds with what the public wants in social media from banks. The results show that social media adoption by the top banks is strong, but that the content is contrary to what the public wants. Connecting with a bank on social media was found to result in slightly higher perceptions of trust.
Communicating Ethical Corporate Social Responsibility: A Case Study • Heidi Hatfield Edwards, Florida Institute of Technology • Corporate philanthropy receives mixed reviews among supporters and critics of corporate giving. With a societal push for corporations to give back to their communities, supporters cite the importance of corporate social responsibility. Critics argue some companies use their giving to mask suspect financial dealings or to buy the public’s good will and counter damage caused by their products or practices. This paper identifies three competing views regarding the ethics of corporate philanthropy, and discusses a framework from which to examine a company’s communication about its social responsibility efforts. Using that framework, this paper examines the ethics of corporate giving using a case study to identify if and how a multinational company (Harris Corporation) communicates ethical principles of corporate philanthropy through its website and annual report, and how philanthropy fits in the corporate priorities.
Refining the Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Model: Expanding Understanding of Cognitive and Affective Disaster Responses • Julia Daisy Fraustino, University of Maryland; Brooke Liu, University of Maryland; Yan Jin, University of Georgia • This study details an experiment using a random, nationally representative sample of 2,015 U.S. adults. Refining the social-mediated crisis communication model, a 3 (disaster information form: Twitter vs. Facebook vs. static web post) x 4 (disaster information source: local government vs. national government vs. local news media vs. national news media) between-subjects design investigated effects of information form and source and impacts of demographics on publics’ cognitive and affective responses to a hypothetical terrorist attack.
Using the Riverside Situational Q-Sort (RSQ) to Construct an Expert Model of a Crisis • Karen Freberg, University of Louisville; Kristin Saling, United States Army; Laura Freberg, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo • Behavior in response to a crisis will result from a combination of individual and situational variables. However, the Riverside Situational Q-sort (RSQ; Funder et al., 2012; Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010) provides a method for quantifying and comparing subjective impressions to create an expert crisis and layperson model with their personal definition of a “crisis.” Differences in their perceptions illustrate how crises managers and their intended audiences perceive same situations in very different ways.
Can Ghost Blogging Disclosure Help an Organization? A Test of Radical Transparency • Toby Hopp; Tiffany Gallicano, University of Oregon • Advocates of radical transparency believe that organizations may benefit from a “radical” approach to sharing increased levels of information about their organizational practices. To test one application of radical transparency, this study experimentally explored the effect of disclosing CEO ghost blogging practices on reader attitudes. The results of this study provide preliminary support for the notion that radical transparency does not hurt reader attitudes toward a CEO or brand in the context of ghost blogging.
Public Relations and Digital Social Advocacy in the Justice for Trayvon Campaign • Linda Hon, University of Florida • This study examined the digital media ecosystem that developed during the Justice for Trayvon campaign prior to George Zimmerman’s arrest. Research literature in public relations, social advocacy, and digital communication as well as content relevant to the campaign in Lexis/Nexis and on Facebook, Twitter, and Youtube were used to develop a theoretical model of digital social advocacy within the context of public relations.
Activist Message Discrepancy and Value-Involvement • Seoyeon Hong, Webster University; Rosie Jahng, Hope College • This study examined whether publics evaluate activists differently when they perceive discrepancy in their promoted causes (public relations statement) and their actions (news coverage of activists) in the lens of social judgment theory. In addition, the role of value- involvement in how publics evaluate activists is examined. Results found that the higher the level of message discrepancy between the public relations statement and news coverage of activists, the more negative participants’ attitude toward activists and the less donation intention participants were. Even though participants with high involvement with issues showed more positive attitude and greater donation intention to activists than low involvement participants for all level of message discrepancy, there was no moderation effect detected. The findings and theoretical implications are discussed in terms of how activists can maintain and promote further relationships with general public and public with high value-involvement.
Leading in the Digital Age: A Study of How Social Media are Transforming the Work of Public Relations Leaders • Hua Jiang, Syracuse University; Yi Luo, Montclair State University; Owen Kulemeka • This study took one of the first steps to examine how public relations leaders’ understanding of social media’s strategic role relates to their active social media use and how strategic social media management may lead to the development of public relations leadership abilities. By analyzing data from a national survey of public relations leaders (n = 461), we found that (1) leaders’ years of professional experience, organizational type and size, size of communication staff, and leaders’ primary role as managers vs. front-line social media professionals significantly impacted the way social media were used in public relations work; (2) public relations leaders’ strategic vision of social media predicted their use of Facebook, RSS Feeds, Blogging, YouTube, and their active social media use in media relations and environmental scanning; and (3) social media use ultimately resulted in the advancement of public relations leadership abilities. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings and suggestions for future research were discussed.
Mediation of Employee Engagement on Symmetrical Internal Communication, Relationship Management, Employee Communication Behaviors, and Retention • Minjeong Kang, Indiana University; Minjung Sung, Chung-Ang University • The purpose of this study is to examine the mediation effects of employee engagement between employee management efforts (i.e., symmetrical internal communication and employee relationship management) and employee communication behaviors and employee retention. For this purpose, this study collected the data from a survey of 438 randomly selected employees working for a corporation in South Korea. The findings of this research clearly demonstrate: (1) employee/internal communication management is linked with employee engagement; (2) employee engagement enhances supportive employee communication behaviors as well as employee retention. Implications and suggestions for future studies are discussed.
Trust, Distrust, Symmetrical Communication, Public Engagement, and WOM • Minjeong Kang, Indiana University; Young Eun Park, Indiana University • The purpose of this study is to examine how public engagement mediates the relationships across organizations’ symmetrical communication efforts, public trust and distrust toward organizations, and publics’ positive and negative WOM (word-of-mouth) behaviors. This study analyzed the data from a survey (N = 704) of a randomly selected sample of U. S. consumers. The results showed strong links between symmetrical communication and trust/distrust and between symmetrical communication and public engagement. Also, this study found that public engagement strongly mediated of the effects of symmetrical communication efforts and trust on publics’ positive WOM. Implications and suggestions for future studies were discussed.
Relationship management in networked public diplomacy • Leysan Khakimova • The purpose of this study was to explore relationship management in networked public diplomacy. The network view of public diplomacy emphasized relationships as important links between organizations, governments, publics. Data included 32 in-depth qualitative interviews with 31 communication officers in governments and organizations. Results reflected limited use of relationship cultivation strategies, both online and offline. In addition, findings suggested a new offline relationship cultivation strategy, i.e. communicated long-term commitment.
Message strategies and public engagement in corporate Facebook pages • Cheonsoo Kim, Indiana University; Sung Un Yang, Indiana University • By employing the six-segment message strategy and hierarchical categorizations of public engagement on social media, this study investigated the link between message strategies and the levels of Facebook engagement. Content analysis of posts (N = 600) was conducted on Facebook pages of 20 companies sampled. Findings showed different message strategies led to different levels of public engagement (i.e., like, comment, share) on Facebook. The theortical and practical implications of the study are discussed.
Testing the buffering and boomerang effects of CSR practices on corporate reputation during a crisis: An experimental study in the context of an obesity campaign by a soft drink company • Hark-Shin Kim; Sun-Young Lee, Individual Purchaser • The present study seeks to explore the effects of CSR practices on corporate reputation and consumers’ degree of supportive intention toward the corporation, and also to examine whether CSR practices produce buffering effects (help to reduce reputational damage) or boomerang effects (increase reputational damage). The results suggest that CSR activities might be more effective in improving people’s favorable attitudes toward the corporation, even the perceived image of CSR activities and the supportive intention as expressed in word-of-mouth referrals or purchasing its products. Second, the results supported the marginal evidence of a boomerang effect. Moreover, this study examined the effects of a crisis on consumers’ emotions under different conditions in order to explore consumers’ cognitive processes and shed light on why consumers respond to a crisis differently in different situations.
How do we perceive crisis responsibility differently? An analysis of different publics’ perceptions of crisis responsibility through news framing in crisis communication • Young Kim, Louisiana State University; Andrea Miller, Louisiana State University; myounggi chon • This study explores the dynamics of crisis communication by examining how publics differently perceive crisis responsibility through different crisis news framing. The study aims to identify and analyze the relationship between public segmentation, news framing, and perceived crisis responsibility. In spite of the importance of an interwoven relationship, there is a lack of such systematic analysis of perceived crisis responsibility based on public segmentation and news framing in crisis communication. An online experiment with 1,113 participants found that their perceptions of crisis responsibility were in consistent with the news framing they read; those who read a news story framed as a preventable crisis perceived high levels of responsibility to the organization, and others who read a news story framed by accidental crisis perceived a low level of crisis responsibility to the organization. Moreover, different publics perceived crisis responsibility differently as latent publics were more susceptible to crisis news framing. Thus, the results shed light on how news framing affects publics’ perceptions of crisis responsibility which could lead to varying crisis response strategies of an organization. Theoretical and practical implications for future research and practices are discussed.
A Content Analysis Of Facebook Responses To Abercrombie And Fitch’s Post-Crisis Message • Emily Faulkner, Saint Louis University; Vallory Leaders; Hyunmin Lee, Saint Louis University • Guided by the Situation Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) and emotions literature, this paper content analyzed Facebook users’ responses to Abercrombie and Fitch’s (A&F) post-crisis response message. The findings showed that the majority of Facebook commenters attributed crisis responsibility to A&F, expressed negative emotions, and expressed nonsupport towards the organization. Additionally, there were significant differences between the type of expressed crisis attribute and behavioral intention, expressed emotions type and expressed behavioral intention, and expressed emotions type and crisis attribution.
How to win foreign publics’ support? Invisible battle over history and politics and the role of public diplomacy • Hyun-Ji Lim, University of Miami • The use of soft power and the support of the foreign public are increasingly important in this age of public diplomacy and global public relations. When a country faces a historical and political conflict with another country, this invisible battle needs a strategy from within this context. Through the employment of a 2 x 2, between-subjects experimental research method, this study aims to examine a causal relationship by analyzing the influence of participants’ perception of the reputation of the involved country and the level of involvement they feel toward the issue on their attitude and behavioral intentions on behalf of the country involved. Implications for global public relations practice and theory are discussed.
Communicating Compassion: A Narrative Analysis of Compassion International’s Blogger Engagement Program • Lisa Lundy • A narrative analysis of Compassion International’s blogger engagement program reveals lessons for nonprofits seeking to partner with bloggers. Compassion went beyond just reaching new sponsors through blogger engagement, but also sought to retain and educate existing sponsors, equipping them as ambassadors for the organization. Compassion’s blogger engagement program demonstrates the social capital to be garnered for nonprofit organizations when they partner with likeminded bloggers who can help tell their story.
Infusing social media with humanity: The impact of corporate character on public engagement and relational outcomes on social networking sites • Rita Linjuan Men, Southern Methodist University; Wanhsiu Sunny Tsai, University of Miami • This study links the factors central to social media communications, including perceived corporate character, parasocial interaction, and community identification, to public engagement and organization–public relationships. Based on American users’ engagement behaviors on corporate Facebook pages, the study underscores the effectiveness of a personification approach in social media communication to construct an agreeable corporate character for enhancing public engagement and inducing intimate, interpersonal interactions and community identification, which in turn improves organization-public relationships.
Engaging Employees in the Social Era in China: Effects of Communication Channels, Transparency, and Authenticity • Rita Linjuan Men, Southern Methodist University; Flora Hung-Baesecke, Hong Kong Baptist University • This study examines the internal communication landscape in the social era in China and investigates how organizations’ use of various communication channels fosters organizational transparency and authenticity, which in turn drives employee engagement. Surveying 407 working adults via the web, this study showed that face-to-face and social media channels are most effective in building organizational transparency, authenticity, and engaging employees. Organizational transparency and authenticity perceived by employees demonstrated strong positive effects on employee engagement.
Filner and Ford, a tale of two mayors: A case study of sex, drugs and scandal • patrick merle, Florida State University; Nicole Lee, Texas Tech University • In 2013, Toronto Mayor Rob Ford and former San Diego Mayor Bob Filner each faced a public crisis, scandals deemed preventable based on human errors, use of illegal drugs for the former and sex misconduct for the latter. Reviewed through the traditional Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) lens, this comparative case study examined the appropriateness of response strategies used by each political figure. Future research directions and practical implications are presented.
15 Years of Ethics in Peer Reviewed Public Relations Journals: A Content Analysis • Michael Mitrook, University of South Florida • Content analysis concerning the nature of ethical discussion in peer reviewed public relations journals was performed on a total of 1405 articles from four scholarly journals covering the period 1998-2012. Of the 1405 articles, 134 mentioned ethics in some substantive way and were further analyzed in four categories: appeal to a normative ethical theory; mention of a code of ethics; mention of metaethical issues; and relating ethics to a particular public relations theory.
Social media use during natural disasters: Using Q Methodology to identify millennials’ surveillance preferences • Kristen Meadows, CARAT USA; Jensen Moore, Louisiana State University • Due to the inevitable occurrence of natural disasters and their ability to affect millions of people, it is increasingly important to understand how individuals prefer to gather information regarding potential harms or threats. Approached from the hardwired for news hypothesis, developed by Shoemaker (1996), this research examined how millennials preferred to gather information during natural disasters thereby fulfilling surveillance needs. The use of Q-Methodology allowed for surveillance types to emerge among millennials based on attitudes toward use of traditional and social media during natural disasters.
Reevaluating Propaganda in PR History: An Analysis of Propaganda in the Press 1810 to 1918 • Cayce Myers, Virginia Tech • Analysis of U.S. press coverage of propaganda indicates that the term propaganda had a largely negative connotation in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Propaganda’s association with religious, political, and grassroots organizations are identified and discussed. This analysis concludes that Edward Bernays’s assertion that propaganda was a neutral term for PR practice prior to 1918 is inaccurate. Implications for PR historiography are discussed.
Who is Responsible for What? Examining Strategic Roles in Social Media Management • Marlene Neill, Baylor University; Mia Moody-Ramirez, Baylor University • This study examines the strategic roles associated with social media management through the lens of role theory. By analyzing the responses from participants in two focus groups and a survey of public relations and human resources practitioners, we identified nine strategic roles and the associated responsibilities including policy maker, internal collaborator, technology tester, communications organizer, issues manager, relationship analyzer, master of metrics, policing, and employee recruiter. Public relations leads most of these activities, but human resources is a close collaborator. Study findings also provide specific insights into online reputation management processes, exact content of social media policies, and the most common metrics used for social media channels.
Navigating the Leadership Challenge: Inside the Indian Public Relations Industry • Padmini Patwardhan, Winthrop University • This study examined public relations leadership in India as perceived by practitioners. Both Western concepts and Indian approaches are explored. 140 respondents took an industry survey; 13 experienced professionals participated in depth interviews. Importance of Meng and Berger’s excellent leadership model was endorsed in India. Culture-specific leadership roles such as nurturer, seer, and mentor along with practices such as “the personal touch” were also observed. Strengthening soft skills was considered important to developing future PR leaders.
Integrated Influence? Exploring Public Relations Power in Integrated Marketing Communication • Katie Place, Saint Louis University; Brian Smith; Hyunmin Lee, Saint Louis University • Public relations and marketing experience turf wars to determine ownership of new communication frontiers, including digital and social media (Delaria, Kane, Porter, & Strong, 2010; Kiley, 2011). Integrated marketing communication (IMC) prescribes that effective communication hinges on building consistent messaging around stakeholder needs through collaboration between functions (Kliatchko, 2008). Few, if any, other studies have identified the supposed power imbalance in IMC, or the influence of IMC on public relations power. This pilot study builds on the exploratory research by Delaria, et al. (2010) and Smith and Place (2013) to evaluate public relations power in IMC, and the mediating effect of social media expertise on that power. An online survey was distributed to 391 public relations professionals, ultimately surveying 21 public relations professionals in IMC environments. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to analyze if the responses grouped into different types of perceived roles. Additional descriptive statistics and regression analysis were implemented to test the hypotheses and research questions. Results of this pilot study suggest that public relations’ influence in IMC is situated at the nexus of structural power and influence-based power, drawing upon manager versus technician typologies of public relations’ roles. Findings imply that individuals associated with social media expertise hold more “technician” roles and responsibilities, and therefore, do not have the legitimate, coercive or reward power associated with “management” roles. These findings contradict previous studies (i.e. Diga and Kelleher, 2009) that found a positive association between social media use and prestige power, structural power, and expert power.
Trust, Transparency, and Power: Forces to be Reckoned with in Internal Strategic Communication • Mandy Oscarson; Kenneth Plowman, Brigham Young University • In 2011, internal strategic communication was not improving as quickly as one might hope in one office of the Department of Defense. The literature supported the need for improved internal strategic communication, but during the lead author’s summer internship, she noted that the communication team struggled to make this happen. Why were these communication professionals not successful? What was hindering their success? Earlier research showed that trust and transparency were connected to internal strategic communication—either positively or negatively. But one new theme arose from the current study: power. The authors took a closer look at why power may play a role in understanding why internal communication was not improving very quickly in this one office. To do this, the authors asked current and former members of the strategic communication team for their opinions through open-ended survey questions about their experiences. This study illustrates that a lack of trust, transparency, and empowerment—and the inappropriate use of power—are all factors in the success or failure of internal strategic communication.
The relationship between personal technology use and the donor/volunteer: A parasocial approach • Geah Pressgrove, West Virginia University; Carol Pardun, University of South Carolina • An online questionnaire completed by 660 nonprofit stakeholders supported the idea that having a social media based personal connection to the nonprofit, resembling a parasocial friendship, had a significant impact on the stakeholder’s intentions to support the organization in the offline community (e.g. volunteer, donate). Findings also indicate that when a stakeholder has a higher level of social connections and time spent online, there is a decrease in the intention to behaviorally support the organization.
Nonprofit Relationship Management: Extending OPR to Loyalty and Behaviors • Geah Pressgrove, West Virginia University; Brooke McKeever • Through a survey of organizational stakeholders (N=660), this study contributes to our understanding of nonprofit public relations in three key areas. First, a new five-factor scale to measure perceptions of the relationship cultivation strategies of stewardship was tested. Second, group differences between organization stakeholder types were explored. Third, a new working model that extends previous OPR models to include variables of loyalty and behavioral intentions was advanced. Findings revealed theoretical, measurement and practical applications.
Addressing the Under-Representation of Hispanics in Public Relations: An Exploratory Quantitative Study • David Radanovich, High Point University • While the Hispanic population in the United States has grown dramatically, the number of Hispanics in public relations has not kept pace. This exploratory quantitative study surveyed Latino public relations professionals to quantify perceived barriers to entry and evaluated ideas for increasing interest in pursuing public relations as a career among Hispanics. The research identified opportunities for educators, professional organizations, public relations agencies, nonprofits and businesses to work together to help address this under-representation.
Skepticism toward CSR: Developing and Testing a Measurement • Hyejoon Rim, University of Minnesota; Sora Kim, The Chinese University of Hong Kong • The study attempts to develop a measurement of CSR skepticism and identify a strongest predictor among the refined CSR skepticism constructs by testing the relationships between skepticism constructs and public responses. Through testing competing models, this study concludes that four factors should be considered to measure CSR skepticism: 1) skepticism toward a CSR communication’s informativeness, 2) skepticism regarding discrepancy: CSR communication motives and CSR motives, 3) skepticism toward a company’s altruism (sincerity), and 4) skepticism regarding image promotion. Skepticism toward a company’s altruism is identified as the strongest predictor in determining negative public response to CSR, whereas cynicism, in contrast to past research, does not have much predictive power to explain public attitude toward CSR.
Time-lag Analysis of Agenda Building between White House Public Relations and Congressional Policymaking Activity • Tiffany Schweickart, University of Florida; Jordan Neil, University of Florida; Ji Young Kim; Spiro Kiousis, University of Florida • This study examined the agenda building process between White House political public relations messages and Congressional policymaking activity during the first six months of the Obama administration’s second term. Using a time-lag design, this study explored three levels of agenda building for issues, issue frames, and the co-occurrence of issues with eight information subsidy types. Theoretical and practical implications for the three levels of agenda-building and advancing the study of political public relations are discussed.
Relationships as Strategic Issues Management: An Activist Network Strategy Model • Erich Sommerfeldt, University of Maryland; Aimei Yang, University of Southern California • This paper argues that activist relationship building is likely to be influenced by the nature of the issue for which a group advocates and the stage of that issues’ development. Informed by issues management perspectives as well as theories of framing and institutionalization, this paper proposes a model of activist networking strategies that explains and prescribes the nature of network relationships an activist group maintains at different stages of an issues development.
Does social media use affect journalists’ perceptions of source credibility? • Dustin Supa, Boston University; Lynn Zoch, Radford University; Jessica Scanlon, Boston University • Changes in the media landscape have put social media in the forefront of interpersonal and organizational communication. This study investigates whether the same is true of the journalists’ relationship with media relations practitioners. A nation-wide survey of journalists (n=535) found that although journalists use social media to generate story ideas, they rarely use them to communicate with practitioners, and perceived greater source credibility in practitioners with whom they had a face-to-face rather than online relationship.
Joining the Movement?: Investigating Standardization of Measurement and Evaluation Within Public Relations • Kjerstin Thorson, University of Southern California; Emily Gee, University of Southern California; Jun Jiang, USC; Zijun Lu, University of Southern California; Grace Luan, University of Southern California; David Michaelson, Teneo Strategy; Sha-Lene Pung, University of Southern California; Yihan Qin, usc; Kaylee Weatherly, University of Southern California; Jing Xu • This paper draws on a new survey of public relations professionals to explore (1) the extent to which respondents report adopting standardized measures recommended by professional organizations; (2) predictors of measurement standardization; and (3) links among measurement practices and self-reported influence of public relations within the broader organization.
Survivor-to-Survivor Communication Model: How Organizations can use Post-Disaster Interviewing to Facilitate Grassroots Crisis Communication • Jennifer Vardeman-Winter, University of Houston; Robyn Lyn; Rakhee Sharma • Public relations and crisis communication research focuses largely on post-crisis communication from the organizational standpoint. Problems arise like jurisdictional conflicts, miscommunications because of cultural differences, and inefficiencies in crisis recovery because national groups don’t have intimate knowledge of the disaster site like local groups do. Thus, it is important to theorize and practice public relations with the knowledge of the publics’ standpoint. In this essay, we look to a recent post-crisis anthropological project conducted with survivors of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita to highlight the important of local, grassroots efforts of recovery. We suggest that public relations practitioners can facilitate some of the concepts used in this process, such as survivor-to-survivor interviewing and sharing narratives. We provide a roadmap that moves our field from a traditional organizational-based post-crisis model to a survivor-to-survivor communication model to be utilized by organizational communicators.
Creating Social Change with Public Relations: Strategically Using Twitter to Turn Supporters into Vocal Advocates • Jeanine Guidry, Virginia Commonwealth University; Richard Waters, University of San Francisco; Gregory D. Saxton, SUNY-Buffalo • Communication scholarship has shown that peer-to-peer communication has the most influence on individuals. Organizations must learn how to engage audiences and facilitate discussions between individuals about organizational messages on social media platforms. Through a content analysis of 3,415 nonprofit Twitter updates, this study identifies message types that are more likely to be retweeted, archived, and discussed. Through these stakeholder behaviors, public relations practitioners have stronger influence as it transitions from organizational to interpersonal messaging.
Dialogic communication and organizational websites: An analysis of existing literature and recommendations for theory development • John Wirtz, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Thais Menezes Zimbres • This paper presents the results of a systematic analysis of studies applying Kent and Taylor’s (1998; 2002) dialogic theory of public relations to organizational websites and social media presence. We identified 34 studies that applied the five-fold dialogic communication framework to organizational websites and an additional 12 studies that applied the framework to some aspect of social media (e.g., blogs, Facebook, Twitter). We then analyzed the papers, paying particular attention to common themes in Methods, Results, and theory testing and development. In general, we found a consistent emphasis on the role of websites and social media as facilitators of dialogic communication and as useful tools for managing organizational-public relationships. However, we found a relatively low degree of consistency across the studies in how dialogic communication was measured, as less than half of the studies (41%) used the same measures. We also found a relatively narrow range of fields represented, with most papers focusing on nonprofit (74%) or government (14.7%) websites. Finally, a surprisingly high proportion of the studies (28%) did not include any research questions or hypotheses, while only 26% of the studies tested a relation between some aspect of the dialogic communication framework and another variable (e.g., responsiveness to inquiry, corporate performance). The paper concludes with recommended areas of future research and theory testing.
An Analysis of How Social Media Use is Being Measured in Public Relations Practice • Don Wright, Boston University; Michelle Hinson, University of Florida • This paper reports on a six-year, longitudinal analysis exploring if and how social and other new media use is being measured in public relations practice. With more than three thousand respondents (n=3,009) – an average of more than 500 per year – the study found fewer than half of the public relations practitioners surveyed work with organizations or have clients that have conducted research measuring what is being communicated about them via social media, blogs and other emerging media. The percentage of organizations conducting these measures grew from 38.6% in 2009 to 45.9% in 2014. Results indicate those who work in public relations strongly support the idea of conducting new media research and measurement. However, most of the research actually taking place involves basic measures of communication outputs and content analysis rather than communication outcomes studies exploring the impact this communication might be having on opinion leaders and other influential people or its role influencing attitude, opinion and behavior formation, reinforcement and change.
The Internet in Public Relations Research: An Analysis and Critique of Its Temporal Development • Yi-Hui Huang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Fang Wu; Qing HUANG, School of Journalism and Communication, The Chinese University of Hong Kong • This study develops a holistic and up-to-date description of Internet public relations research by analyzing 123 academic journal articles published between 2008 and 2013. Three developmental stages of Internet public relations research are identified: the Budding Stage (1992-2003), the Diversification Stage (2004-2008), and the Advancement Stage (2009 to present). Comparisons among the three different stages are made. Major findings include: 1) research has been expanding and diversifying; 2) recent theoretical development makes a shift from description to theorization; 3) dialogic theory, excellence theory, interactivity, and dialogicity have been the most frequently studied theories and characteristics; 4) asymmetrical research agenda exists in terms of its lack of diversity in locality, perspective, and cultural sensitivity. Improvements can and should be made by moving toward a research agenda that is more methodologically diverse, culturally sensitive, and symmetrical. Reflections, critiques, and suggestions for how to advance Internet public relations research are offered.
Effects of source credibility and virality on evaluations of company response via Facebook: An experiment in online crisis communication • Shupei Yuan, Michigan State University; Saleem Alhabash, Michigan State University • Social networking sites have become important tools to communicate with publics during crises. This study investigated the how source credibility predicted attitudes toward the apology response and the company in crisis as a function of source type and number of likes. Findings showed that the strength of association between trustworthiness and attitudes varied as a function of source type and virality. Findings are discussed within the persuasion models, crisis response typologies, and new communication technologies.
Chinese Milk Companies And The 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal: An Analysis Of Crisis Communication Strategies In A Non-Western Setting • Lijie Zhou, Arkansas State University; Li Zeng, Arkansas State University; Gilbert Fowler • Study analyzed how four major Chinese companies (Sanlu, Mengniu, Yili, and Bright Group) used press releases to respond to the 2008 Chinese Milk Scandal. Analyzed in stages, findings show during pre-crisis, all displayed similarities — keeping silent / covering-up. In crisis, strategies varied dramatically as companies became involved — looking for government protection and apologizing. In post-crisis, survivors adopted bolstering strategy. Study suggests Chinese companies employed western crisis communication strategies, although with distinct Chinese characteristics.
Student
Examining the Influence of Public Relations Message Strategy Use on Student Attitude Through Facebook • Alan Abitbol • Experimental methods were used to examine the influence of public relations strategies, derived from Hazleton and Long’s (1988) public relation process model, disseminated over Facebook on student attitude. Results revealed that negative messages posted on Facebook had the most significant effect on participant attitude, and that using Facebook as a medium did not affect attitude significantly. These findings indicate that the message content is especially important since the platform itself does not impact attitude.
Framing for the cure: An examination of self and media imposed frames of Susan G. Komen • Caitrin Cardosi, Kent State University • The following study examines the frames created about Susan G. Komen for the Cure® both by the foundation itself and by major national news outlets. A qualitative analysis, grounded in framing theory, identified frames around the foundation formed by the media both in 2008 and during the months of January, February, and March of 2012. Then, it compared those frames with frames that emerged from press releases published by the foundation during the same times. The study found that brand strength is a key component to influencing media framing, as is grounding messaging in issues larger than the individual organization. Future research could examine the relationship between national headquarters of nonprofits and media outlets in comparison with the relationship between local chapters and media outlets.
Global Networks, Social Media and the Iceland Ash Cloud: A Crisis Communication Case • Maxine Gesualdi, Temple University • The Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajokull erupted in April 2010 causing a large cloud of ash, which moved across Europe created a crisis situation for many stakeholders including airlines, nation-state governments, and individual consumers. The ash could was a non-deadly natural disaster that had no human cause, responsible party, or recovery effort. This study explores the Iceland ash cloud as a networked global communication crisis and reveals implications for management of crises via social media.
Comprehending CSR Message Effects: An Application of the Elaboration Likelihood Model • Osenkor Gogo, University of Georgia; Nicholas Browning, University of Georgia; Marvin Kimmel, University of Georgia • Although CSR initiatives generally elicit positive consumer reactions, a recent study showed that most people find CSR messages confusing. This experiment examined the information processing dynamics at play in the relationship between CSR messages and consumer perceptions of corporate reputation. Based on ELM, the results indicated that CSR’s influence on reputation is unaffected by message complexity. This effect is, however, intensified by involvement, information processing ability, and brand familiarity. The implications are discussed.
Internet-Mediated Relationship Management in Local Nonprofit Fundraising • Yi Ji • While organizing Pedal 4 Kids charity bike ride, Ronald McDonald House Charities of South Florida primarily adopted online communication to manage relationships with its stakeholders. However, neither recruitment nor fundraising goals were achieved. In-depth interviews with event participants revealed integrated application of message interactivity and functional interactivity would enhance public engagement in local charity event. Findings provide theoretical and practical implications in local nonprofit public relations management through fundraising event in a new media context.
“Culturing” Generic/Specific Theory: Relocating Culture in Generic/Specific Public Relations • Amanda Kennedy, University of Maryland • This study asked how culture in generic/specific theory (GST) (traditionally applied to international public relations) can be reconceived, and whether GST can also apply to domestic public relations to inform culturally reflective and effective national campaigns. I conducted seven in-depth interviews and thematic analysis to explore how national CDC campaigns were adapted to local publics by community organizations, finding that deeper theories of culture can enhance GST and makes GST useful for domestic public relations.
The More Informative, The Better: The Effect of Message Interactivity on Product Attitudes and Purchase Intentions • Holly Ott, The Pennsylvania State University; Sushma Kumble, The Pennsylvania State University; Michail Vafeiadis, The Pennsylvania State University; Thomas Waddell • Social media increasingly allows consumers to interact with businesses, although the effects of this novel technology in the context of public relations is under-examined. The present study conducted a 2×3 experiment to examine the effect of message interactivity and source authority on consumers’ ad attitudes, brand attitudes, and purchase intentions. Message interactivity had a positive effect on ad effectiveness via the indirect pathway of perceived informativeness. Theoretical and practical implications of study results are discussed.
Set It and Forget It: The One-Way Use of Social Media by Government Science Agencies • Nicole Lee, Texas Tech University; Matthew VanDyke, Texas Tech University • Research suggests that one-way message dissemination is not an adequate means of improving knowledge or changing attitudes about science. Informed by public relations literature on the use of social media for dialogic communication, the current study examined how United States federal government science agencies communicate about science and the strategies they enact on social media. Findings suggest they underutilize social media’s potential for dialogue and treat new media platforms as broadcast media.
Publics’ Preference-Consistent and -Inconsistent Judgments of Crisis Response: A Preliminary Examination of Expectancy Contrast Theories in Crisis Management • Xiaochen Zhang, University of Florida • This study attempted to use expectancy contrast theories to explain and predict publics’ response to organizational crisis response strategies in an experiment. It tested the effects of prior attitude valence (positive, negative) and crisis response strategies (denial, bolster, combined) on publics’ attitudes and blame. An interaction effect was found on attitude but not on blame. Bolstering was found to be more effective for positive condition but less effective for negative condition than denial and combined.
How do Leading Companies in Greater China Communicate Their CSR Practices through Corporate Websites? A Comparative Study of Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan: 2008-2013 • Mengmeng Zhao, The Chinese University of Hong Kong • This study explores how corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices are presented and communicated on corporate websites of 204 top companies in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan during 2008-2013. The analytical focuses of content analysis include presence, prominence and extent of communication, as well as CSR issues and modes reported on the websites. The results indicate that CSR communication has gained great attention in the Greater China area, as nearly two-thirds of top companies communicated CSR on their corporate websites. However, significant discrepancies exist among three regions in terms of CSR perception, perceived importance of CSR issues, and the adoption of CSR modes. Specifically, more than one-third of Hong Kong companies use term “Sustainability”, a more advanced form of CSR, as the section title to refer to responsible behavior. Whereas the majority of companies in Mainland China and Taiwan still use “CSR” or “Social Responsibility”. Furthermore, as for CSR issues and modes, Mainland Chinese companies put much efforts on poverty and disaster relief as well as philanthropic act, while Hong Kong companies attach great importance to community’s sustainable development and implement CSR activities through more institutionalized ways such as volunteering, sponsorship and partnerships, and Taiwan companies embrace humanist spirit, as their CSR projects involve more in arts and culture, health and safety of workers, and employee engagement. This study represents the first comparative study of CSR communication amongst businesses in Greater China, providing a preliminary observation of the status of CSR implementation and communication in these three convergent-and-divergent societies. Limitations and implications for future research were also discussed.
Teaching
“Can every class be a Twitter chat?”: Teaching social media via cross-institutional experiential learning • Julia Daisy Fraustino, University of Maryland; Rowena Briones, Virginia Commonwealth University; Melissa Janoske, University of Maryland • Using the framework of experiential learning theory, instructors of social media strategy classes at three universities implemented Twitter chats as a way to build students’ social media and public relations knowledge. Creating topical case studies and discussing them during the chats, students applied course theories and concepts, built professional networks, and broadened understanding of how to communicate using a new tool in a unique digital culture. Best practices for teaching using similar assignments are offered.
Considering Certification?: An Analysis of Universities’ Communication Certificates and Feedback from Public Relations Professionals • Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University; Jacqueline Lambiase • Working professionals may need post-baccalaureate education, but finding time and resources to do so may be difficult. An analysis of 75 university master’s programs in public relations found 22 related programs offering communication certificates. A web audit of these programs, plus a survey and depth interviews, indicated professionals are interested in earning certificates, particularly in social and digital media strategy and measurement. Professionals want to attend certificate programs that combine online and face-to-face instruction.
In Their Own Words: A Thematic Analysis of Students’ Self-Perceptions of Writing Skills in Mass Communication Programs • Scott Kuehn, Clarion University; Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University • This study explored student self-perceptions of writing skills in mass communication programs at thirteen public state universities in the Mid-Atlantic region. Responses to three open-ended questions revealed heavy student concern with their basic skills, a desire for extensive faculty contact and feedback, and for many respondents, an immaturity or naiveté regarding professional standards. This study addresses implications for faculty members who wish to better understand their students in order to devise more effective writing instruction.
Newspaper and Online News 2014 Abstracts
Open Competition
“And then I just Google it”: Evolving online news consumption processes among young adults • Dunja Antunovic; Patrick Parsons, Pennsylvania State University; Tanner Cooke • In the changing news environment, young adult news audiences consume less news than their elders and they increasingly gravitate online for news. This paper explores three distinct yet overlapping news consumption sub-processes: (1) intended and routinized news repertoires, (2) unintended or incidental exposure, and (3) directed in-depth consumption. Employing a mixed-methods approach that integrates surveys, an online activity and focus group interviews, this research seeks to identify and describe news consumption processes among young adults.
The effect of correction impact on news perceptions: An analysis of Democratic Theory • Alyssa Appelman, The Pennsylvania State University; Kirstie Hettinga, California Lutheran University • Previous research has categorized news corrections by objectivity and impact. This study seeks to build upon that research by assessing whether these factors affect readers’ perceptions of credibility and importance. A between-subjects experiment (N = 80) found that readers consider objective, high-impact corrections to be more important than other kinds of corrections. Interestingly, correction type did not affect perceptions of credibility. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Racial identity on trial: Breaking the silence in an online reader space • Ann Auman; Kapi‘olani Ching, University of Hawaii • Online reader comments represent a mediated public space that allows participants to construct their narrative of society’s events. This study analyzes the discourses of online reader comments in the Honolulu Star-Advertiser during the trial of a federal agent in the summer of 2013 after he fatally shot a Hawaiian man. It illuminates the complexities underlying social relations, particularly the culture clash theme of locals vs outsiders that is rarely covered in the news media.
Bouncing Back from Stress Psychological resiliency among journalism school students • Clyde Bentley, University of Missouri; David Wallace, University of Missouri Counseling Center; Tom Warhover, University of Missouri School of Journalism; Ed Morris, University of Missouri; Jim Koller, University of Missouri Counseling Center; Tina Hoffman, Central Iowa Psychological Services • Using a large set of interviews and a 174-student survey, the study examined the stress level of journalism students at a large Midwestern university. Mental health professionals at the school had found that journalism students sought counseling help more frequently than did students from other departments. The study found that while a large proportion of the journalism students coped well or even sought the stress of newsrooms, others found it debilitating. The study attempted to identify factors of “resiliency,” – the ability to bounce back from stress – that could be encouraged in journalism curriculum.
How do U.S. problem states’ local newspapers frame prescription drug abuse? • Rebecca Burton, University of Florida; Kim Walsh-Childers, University of Florida; Calli Breil, University of Florida • Prescription drug addiction has been seen as a U.S. epidemic, particularly in ten states: Florida, West Virginia, Nevada, Kentucky, Alaska, Louisiana, New Mexico, Utah, Pennsylvania and Ohio. This study revealed that local newspaper coverage in the ten problem states framed prescription drug abuse in a way that blamed the problem on politicians, bad doctors or drug traffickers or focused on the ways society suffers from the problem. Although terms like “public health crisis” were frequently used, stories were rarely framed in terms of how the problem could be mitigated, a frame we termed recovery. Health-focused stories were rare. The implications for news influence on public and policy responses to prescription drug addiction are discussed.
Disrupted or Misinformed? A Review of U.S. Newspapers’ Technology-Driven Strategy • H. Iris Chyi, University of Texas at Austin • U.S. newspapers’ digital experiment has been going on for two decades, but the performance of their online ventures has fallen short of expectations. Technology, once an opportunity, has turned into an existential challenge for many newspaper firms. Guided by Clay Christensen’s disruptive technology theory, most newspapers take a technology-driven approach, which leads to a largely unsuccessful experiment. This study reviews U.S. newspapers’ digital struggles and examines the prevalent-but-unchecked assumption about an all-digital future for journalism.
Relationships Among Reader Commenting Systems and the Credibility of News Messengers and Messages • Lindsey Conlin, The University of Alabama; Chris Roberts, University of Alabama • This study tested whether the type of commenting and moderation systems affected credibility of an online story and/or the traditional local newspaper that published it. An experiment manipulated native and non-native commenting systems, and pre- and post-publication moderation systems, with a story-only control treatment. The presence of comments decreased messenger credibility, and more frequent commenters perceived lower messenger credibility. Results and implications for online news are discussed.
Sourcing and Framing the Syrian Crisis: How Elite Newspapers Covered the International Reaction to Syria’s Use of Chemical Weapons • Raluca Cozma, Iowa State University; Claudia Kozman, Indiana University • Drawing on scholarship on framing, sourcing, and war journalism, this content analysis explores how The New York Times and The Washington Post covered the international reaction to Syria’s use of chemical weapons against its own citizens in August 2013. The analysis found that stories in the month following the event focused primarily on diplomacy efforts and stopped paying attention to the ongoing civil war. Despite that, conflict framing was still dominant. The stories were generally thematic and richly sourced. The analysis lends support to the literature on the relationship between sourcing and framing and to the indexing hypothesis.
The Arizona Republic and The Indianapolis Star: A Comparative Analysis of Content Changes after Purchase by Gannett • Jeanne Criswell, University of Indianapolis; Robert Gobetz, University of Indianapolis; Frederick May, University of Indianapolis • This study provides quantitative evidence that a local newspaper’s quality before an ownership change substantially influences whether a new ownership model will have a positive, negative or neutral effect. In this case, Gannett ownership had a significantly more detrimental impact on The Arizona Republic than on The Indianapolis Star. The two newspapers’ similar characteristics, shared ownership history, and simultaneous purchase reduced the influence of variables that could account for inconsistencies in other such studies.
Gatekeepers Under Siege: Assessing Factors of Government Public Information Officers’ Controls on Journalists • Carolyn Carlson, Kennesaw State University; David Cuillier, University of Arizona School of Journalism • Journalists as gatekeepers of the news have always had a love-hate relationship with government public information officers (PIOs) in setting the public agenda. Today, reporters are increasingly reliant on PIOs because of reduced resources and staff, and anecdotally journalists allege stronger tactics employed by government to manage the message, including monitoring interviews, prohibiting employees from speaking, and blackballing reporters who write critical stories. This study employs three national surveys to investigate the state of PIO control on the traditional gatekeepers of news – journalists. We surveyed journalists who cover federal agencies, journalists who cover primarily local government, and PIOs at all levels of government to examine whether PIO controls are impacting journalists’ ability to do their jobs, and to identify the individual and external factors related to those controls.
Newsroom Innovation Continuum: A Model for Understanding Heterophily and Innovation • Larry Dailey, University of NV, Reno; Mary Spillman • This paper proposes The Newsroom Innovation Continuum, a theoretical model that connects literature on partnerships between newspapers and television stations, inter-organizational cooperation and innovation. Through a synthesis of research from all three fields, this model suggests that a news organization’s likelihood of innovation correlates with its ability to harness and manage heterophily. The model provides insight into why partnerships have not previously reached their full potential and how future newsroom collaborations could be improved.
Understanding digital media adoption: Analysis of US newspaper coverage of social networks and virtual worlds • Donna Davis; Yan Yang • This content and framing analysis examined the newspaper coverage of social networking sites (Facebook and MySpace) and virtual worlds (Second Life and World of Warcraft) during their burgeoning years. Based on the diffusion of innovation and the hype cycle, this study revealed print media reflected the anticipated adoption curve, yet the coverage was overwhelmingly neutral rather than positive or negative as anticipated. The role of print media in adoption and the hype cycle is discussed.
Weibo as news: Credibility judgments in the context of Chinese microblogging • Xue Dong, The Pennsylvania State University; Alyssa Appelman, The Pennsylvania State University; Chun Liu, Southwest Jiaotong University • Weibo, a microblogging platform similar to Twitter, has become a key source of news in China. Because American-based social media platforms are blocked in China, Weibo has become one of the most popular ways for Chinese people to connect and to share information. This study evaluates Weibo news, in terms of its use and perceived credibility. It also evaluates Weibo’s technological affordances, based on Sundar’s MAIN model (2008). A survey (N = 216) suggests that, despite Weibo’s popularity, television news is still thought to be the most powerful news media outlet in China. In addition, Weibo news use was related to the perceived advantages of the platform, rather than the perceived disadvantages. Interestingly, credibility perceptions are based on bandwagon cues, social presence cues, and quality cues. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Primary differences: How market orientation can affect content • Patrick Ferrucci, Bradley University • Studies have shown that market orientation affects content. However, scant research examines how news organizations with different market orientations covered the same story. This study utilizes textual analysis and long-form interviews to compare coverage of the 2013 St. Louis mayoral race. The study compares the strongly market oriented St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the weakly market oriented St. Louis Beacon. Findings showed major differences in content, especially concerning how the two covered race, periphery candidates and the presentation of campaign issues. These results are interpreted through the lens of gatekeeping theory.
Cultural Convergence 10 Years Later: A reexamination of intergroup bias among journalists in the digital media age • Vincent Filak, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh • This study revisits (BLIND CITE)’s 2004 research of print and broadcast journalists to assess whether changes in the field have diminished the levels of intergroup bias for these groups. The findings here demonstrate that print and broadcast journalists (n=191) remained biased against each other, even in the face of obvious outside threats and outgroup benefits. In addition, the journalists were more likely to view convergence efforts negatively when these efforts were perceived to be the work of outgroup members. In comparing the data gathered here to that in the original study, dislike and distrust of each other remain consistent. Finally, the influx of digital media, while viewed as valuable by all participants, has had little impact regarding the levels of bias the journalists espoused.
Selling a National Influence: The Coverage of the National Collegiate Athletic Association in the New York Times, 1906-1916 • Ashley D. Furrow, University of Memphis • Using the concept of collective memory, this study explores the coverage of the NCAA by the New York Times from 1906-1916. Close examination reveals the dawning of the NCAA’s evolution into a dominating and powerful regulator of intercollegiate athletics as this newspaper charted the progression of its growing influence. As more institutions joined, the NCAA began its transformation into the most influential governing body intercollegiate sports, and the struggle for control is highlighted throughout this analysis.
Mobile Journalism 101: Student Adoption of Mobile Devices in Producing News Content • Dianne Garyantes, Rowan University; Mark Berkey-Gerard, Rowan University • This study examines journalism students’ use of smartphones to produce news content. Survey findings show that students regularly use smartphones for personal use, but most do not employ them when producing content for journalism assignments. Training and technical assistance from journalism faculty, however, positively influenced student use of smartphones to produce news content. These findings provide empirical support for the positive influence of facilitating conditions, a construct identified in models of user acceptance of technology.
Social Media in the Newsgathering Process: A Survey of Routines and Practices • Tamara Gillis, Elizabethtown College; Kirsten Johnson, Elizabethtown College • One-hundred-and-twenty-nine Pennsylvania journalists were surveyed regarding social media use. Journalists report using social media in the newsgathering process, but still favor traditional means. Younger journalists favor using social media tools, especially Twitter, over older journalists. Those who work in larger newsrooms also use social media more than those in smaller newsrooms. While previous studies have examined tools reporters are using, this is the first to examine age, newsroom size, and impact on social media use.
The Rise of the Dragon? Framing China’s Global Leadership in Elite American Newspapers • Guy J. Golan, Syracuse University; Josephine Lukito, Syracuse University • The current study analyzes the framing of China’s emergence as a global power in the opinion pages of two elite newspapers. Results show that the New York Times framed China as a global power undermined by structural limitations, while the Wall Street Journal framed China as a direct threat to U.S. foreign policy interests. The results of the analysis are discussed in the context of media-government power dynamics.
The Adoption of Pinterest by Local Newspapers in the U.S. • Clark Greer, Point Loma Nazarene University; Douglas Ferguson, College of Charleston • Social media are changing the way journalists disseminate news, as well as the way audiences receive and interact with information. This study examined how local newspapers across the US were using the social network Pinterest. Results of a content analysis found that news was the predominant category of themes on pin boards. In addition, the study revealed that the number of pin boards was related to the size of the newspapers’ circulation. However, few newspapers were using the social medium as a tool to promote the paper.
America’s front pages: A 30-year update • David L. Morris II, University of Memphis; Matthew Haught, University of Memphis • In the digital media age, clear and effective visual communication strategies are a key component of media. While the printed newspaper has been in decline, editors have turned to design, in part, as a way to make the product competitive in the crowded media market. The results of this push for design has ushered in an new era of front page design, with newspapers of all sizes embracing navigation tools and promotions. This study updates the work of Pasternack and Utt examining newspaper design trends in 1984 and 1995. Using front pages collected from 453 newspapers throughout the United States, this study examines the state of current front page design. Further, it explores the use of design hubs and their effect on page design in newspaper chains.
Community Conflict, News Coverage, and Mountaintop Mining in Appalachia: A Content Analysis of Major State and Mining Community Newspapers • Kylah Hedding, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Daniel Riffe, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • Community conflict theory and its “counter-thesis” about the press’s role are not polar opposites. This is especially true for Appalachian areas dependent on a single industry like coal, where much of the conflict comes down to tradeoffs between environmental effects and economic development. This study examines how these competing interests are addressed in the media, using content analysis of news coverage of mountaintop coal mining in community and state/metro papers in Kentucky and West Virginia.
Blog Sites and Blog Cites: Newspaper Journalists’ Use of Blogs as News Sources (2004-2013) • Kyle Heim, Seton Hall University • This study analyzed newspaper articles from 2004 to 2013 in which blogs were cited as news sources (N = 802). Results revealed that the blogs generally were not featured prominently within the articles, and the practice of citing blogs as sources has declined since 2010. Although researchers generally have focused on the role of blogs in political coverage, the citing of blogs occurred more frequently in articles about business and technology and in general news items.
Can the watchdog ever retire? Reevaluating journalistic roles through their performance • Lea Hellmueller; Lindsey Blumell; Jennifer Huemmer; Claudia mellado • This study examines how journalistic role conception performs as a gatekeeping tool to produce content consistent with the two dominant US journalism models: watchdog and civic-oriented journalism. Our study seeks to expand on the established survey research by measuring role performance through a content analysis of newspaper articles. Our findings indicate a strong relationship between gatekeeping practices and the visibility of journalistic roles in news stories.
Journalists and linking: A metajournalistic discourse analysis • Juliette De Maeyer, Université de Montréal, Communication; Avery Holton, University of Utah • Journalists have incorporated hyperlinks (i.e., linking) into their professional practice since the early stages of digital news expansion. Media scholars and professionals championed their use early on, placing an emphasis on the frequency of link occurrence in news content rather than explorations of their functionality. More recent scholarship has observed links may enhance the rapid exchange of information, provide novel levels of transparency, improve trust and social capital, and augment communicative and connective opportunities between journalists and audiences. These studies have drawn largely on data from audiences or limited pools of professional journalists. Less is known about the perceptions and uses of links in journalism on a broader journalistic scale. Drawing on a metajournalistic discourse analysis, this study finds that while journalists and other news media experts may indeed see value in linking, that optimism is balanced by levels of caution and worry, suggesting a need for media scholars, journalists, and news organization to re-evaluate the deployment of links within the news process.
Effect of News Tweets on Users’ Liking, Trust, and Intention to Share and Use Information • Brian Houston, University of Missouri; Mitchell McKinney; Esther Thorson; Joshua Hawthorne; David Wolfgang, University of Missouri; Alecia Swasy • Using an experiment, we tested how news tweet (topic, tone, focus) and user (Twitter familiarity, location) characteristics affected attitudes about news tweets with a random sample of Chicago and Los Angeles adults. Results indicated tweet topic and user location affected some tweet attitudes. Also, objective tweets were preferred to subjective, and local tweets were preferred to national. At the same time, local subjective tweets were most appealing. Experience with Twitter was important in understanding effects.
The Re-Animation of Literary Journalism as a Digital Genre • Susan Jacobson, Florida International University; Robert Gutsche Jr, Florida International University; Jacqueline Marino, Kent State University • Since The New York Times published Snow Fall in 2012, digital news audiences have seen a growing body of similar work characterized by the purposeful integration of multimedia into longform journalism. Some of these packages also employ techniques from literary journalism, such as scenes and character development. Creators include both established media organizations and startups. Their work is alternately celebrated as the future of digital storytelling and lambasted as a distracting mess of multimedia. Just as the literary journalists of the 1960s attempted to write the nonfiction equivalent of the great American novel, the Web journalists of the 2010s are reviving literary journalism techniques. They are experimenting with multimedia to enhance the literary form and incorporating new digital formats, such as parallax scroll and video loops, to produce a new era of multimedia literary narratives that are character-driven and evocative of time and place. To evaluate whether this emerging genre represents a revival of literary journalism and to what extent it incorporates new techniques of news storytelling, we analyze 50 longform news packages published online in 2012 and 2013.
The Objectivity Question: A Q Study of Journalism Students’ Perceptions of Objectivity as a Normative Value • Amanda Kehrberg; Christina DeWalt, The University of Oklahoma; Joonil Kim, University of Oklahoma; Peter Gade, Professor at the University of Oklahoma • Objectivity has long been considered a normative value of journalism, one essential to the journalist’s claims to both credibility and autonomy (Gans, 2005; Mindich, 1998; Rosen, 1993; Schudson, 2001). Yet while objectivity is continuously cited as the most important guiding norm, research and professional sources suggest that objectivity is often misunderstood by journalists and applied differently in their work. This confusion is amplified by the rise of postmodern skepticism on the existence of observable, stable truth and the proliferation of collaborative digital technology. The purpose of this study is to understand how undergraduate journalism majors, as aspiring professional journalists, process and understand concepts related to objectivity as a guiding professional norm. In this Q-Methodology study, 42 aspiring journalists (undergraduate journalism majors at a major Midwestern university) sorted 44 stimulus statements about dimensions of objectivity in March 2014. The results produced four factors explaining 58% of the variance: The Objective Traditionalists, the Uncertain Scientists, the Human Professionals, and the Digital Participants. The findings show three strongly correlated factors with high support for objectivity as a guiding professional norm, with distinct differences identified in how respondents understand impartiality and the increasing influence of technology.
Political Participation and Newspaper Coverage of Municipal Elections In Small-Town America • Esther Thorson; Scott C. Swafford, University of Missouri; Eunjin (Anna) Kim, University of Missouri • Local elections are the bedrock of participatory politics but seldom the focus of studies about news media effects. The present study reports a survey of media use and political knowledge and participation in local elections by people in three small Midwest communities. The literature on how news and interpersonal communication impact political participation via cognitive, affective, and behavioral routes is used to predict how consumption of election news, preferences for different kinds and formats of information, interpersonal political discussion, and exposure to political persuasion messages predict voting in municipal elections, knowledge about municipal government structure, perceived importance of the elections, and other kinds of participation in them.
How U.S. Daily Newspapers Decide to Design and Implement Paywalls • Mike Jenner, University of Missouri; Esther Thorson; Eunjin (Anna) Kim, University of Missouri • This study reports a representative survey of 416 publishers of U.S. dailies. The focus was to determine current levels of paywall deployment, and to explore how newspaper management decided to move to paywalls. The study is informed by the New Institutionalism (e.g., Lowrey, 2011), which suggests that newspaper companies perceive themselves as institutions with significant values and responsibilities to fulfill and therefore are less likely to use independent consumer research in making business decisions, and more likely to ask and imitate each other. Although the findings show some independent consumer research, it is at a low level, while asking each other is the most common “research” procedure. There are also clear effects on decision-making of newspaper size and its ownership structure.
Anatomy of Front Pages: Comparison between The New York Times and other elite U.S. newspapers • Yung Soo Kim, University of Kentucky, School of Journalism and Telecommunications; Deborah Chung, University of Kentucky • Using a content analysis, this paper compares the front page elements of the New York Times with six elite national newspapers to assess how different news organizations package and present their most important page to the public. Findings reveal that the Times featured more international and national news stories, depended more frequently on its own staff for both stories and images, and employed smaller headlines on its front page compared to the other elite newspapers.
Portrayals of Hunger: Priming Effects of Stereotypical News Images on Caucasian and Hispanic Audiences • Meredith Morris, University of Central Florida; William Kinnally, University of Central Florida • This study applies priming and exemplification to examine the ways in which news photos influenced readers’ social judgments. Of particular interest were the perceptions of Caucasian respondents about minorities, and Hispanics’ perceptions of African Americans and other Hispanics regarding the issue of hunger. Participants (506 college students) were randomly assigned to read one of three versions of an online news article about emergency hunger services. One version included photographs of African Americans, another included photos of Hispanics, the last was text-only. All three articles included base-rate statistics of ethnicities using emergency hunger services. Results showed images influence the way Caucasians and Hispanics perceive those people suffering from hunger. Key findings included that Caucasians in the study were susceptible to Hispanic primes, which altered their views on their perceptions about the number of Hispanics receiving emergency food services. However, Caucasians’ perceptions of African Americans did not change. Additionally, Hispanic participants were affected by primes in such a way that limitations on societal advancement were perceived more strongly than those of the Caucasian participants. The difference between Caucasians’ stereotypes regarding African Americans and Hispanics is an interesting development. The role of priming stereotype in relation to social issues is discussed.
Going Digital and Social: How a Colorado Newspaper Adopted New Journalistic Strategies • Kris Kodrich, Colorado State University • This study examines how the executive editor of the Fort Collins Coloradoan implemented a digital strategy and how the journalists at the daily newspaper accepted the changes. Utilizing concepts from newsroom sociology and diffusion of innovations to examine the changes, the study concludes that the editor successfully changed the culture of the newsroom in order to better serve the community. The study offers recommendations for newsrooms seeking a similar path.
The Evolution of Values: A Case Study of Washington Post Sunday Magazine Editors • Jeff Lemberg, Curry College • How do editors of a weekly newspaper section manage the interplay between editorial values and business values? This case study of The Washington Post Sunday magazine reveals that editors of the magazine routinely sought positive recognition and professional acceptance by the daily newspaper’s most respected journalists, and routinely ignored the business side of publishing. However, findings also show a clear evolution in editors’ attitudes, toward a more balanced approach to news and business values.
Since 1984: The Emergence of Journalistic Professionalism of Southern Weekend • Xiaoqin Li, Department of Communication, FSS, University of Macau • Consisting of two rounds in-depth-interviews with the journalists and editors of Southern Weekend, the leading weekly in China, the author aims to investigate how the staff in Southern Weekend, not only break the limitation of the authority, but also meet the market need in spite of paying the price of ‘media deviance’ in the view of the power center. The motivations are found to come from both Chinese tradition and journalistic professionalism.
Agenda Rich, Agenda Poor: Exploring Agenda Diversity of Internet events on news coverage in China • Shuning Lu, University of Texas at Austin; Baohua Zhou, Fudan University • With the proliferation of Internet events in China, mainstream journalism reacts to this trend actively. The current study employs agenda diversity as a core concept to systematically examine the ways in which mass media cover Internet events. It reveals that Internet events have been incorporated into news coverage in traditional media in China. However, it exhibits a limited, unstable and fragmented manner of covering Internet events, which largely correspondent to the newspapers’ location and journalistic paradigm. The implications and future research directions are also discussed in the study.
Job Satisfaction and Gender at Iowa Newspapers: Findings from a Mixed-Method Study • Tracy Lucht, Iowa State University • This study aims to contribute to the literature on gender and job satisfaction by using a mixed-method approach to learn the perceptions and attitudes of employees at community newspapers in Iowa. A survey (n=139) was used to gather quantitative and qualitative data in order to compare the employment experiences and job satisfaction of male and female employees on measures of job quality, work-life balance, and organizational support.
Tweets and Tributes to Fallen Journalists: The Emerging Role of Social Media in Journalism’s Hero Mythology • Raymond McCaffrey, University of Arkansas • This study explored the existence of hero myths in tributes by journalists via Twitter after the deaths of correspondents Anthony Shadid and Marie Colvin in February 2012. A qualitative analysis revealed that about 38 percent of the 466 tweets advanced a hero myth. The study concluded that social media has emerged as a powerful agent in spreading a mythology that espouses risk-taking and a form of stoicism that involves ignoring the consequences of dangerous assignments.
Framing building in news coverage of school shootings • Michael McCluskey, Tennessee-Chattanooga • Two dimensions of frame building, structural characteristics and social norms, were evaluated to understand the range of problem definitions within news coverage of school shootings. Nine problem definitions were analyzed in the news content (N = 1,326). Although newspapers in Republican and Democratic states did not differ, other audience-oriented structural characteristics varied. Events with the highest degrees of social norm violation emphasized individual-level responsibility. Findings expand understanding of frame building and problem definitions.
Do online news comments matter? Anonymity, argument quality and valence • Barbara Miller, Elon University; Qian Xu, Elon University; Brooke Barnett, Elon University • This study involved an experiment examining how attributes of reader comments in response to news stories impacted perceptions of an online news story as well as reader intentions to share the story, a key aspect of public deliberation on a topic. Attributes of both the comment and the commenter impacted reader perceptions of the online journalism as well as reader intentions to learn more about the topic or continue discussing the story in other formats.
The Coverage and the Speech: A Case in Collaborative Agenda Setting and Singapore • Fernando Paragas, Nanyang Technological University; Chee Leong Lam, Nanyang Technological University; Premkumar Thanapalan; Eugene Seng • This paper seeks to contribute to this debate on the relationship between media and the government in Singapore by exploring the idea of a collaborative agenda setting in which, in addition to the classical flow from newsmakers to news coverage, the media reflexively nurtures an agenda for and with the government. For its case the study explores the link between the coverage of the Straits Times a year prior to the Prime Minister’s speech on National Day Rally 2013. Education, a major concern in the nationwide discourse initiative Our Singapore Conversation, is the anchor topic. Using quantitative and qualitative textual analytical approaches, this research shows the dynamics of collaborative agenda setting and its implications to Singapore and the relationship between media and the state.
When New Media Makes News: Framing Technology and Sexual Assault in the Steubenville Rape Case • Rosemary Pennington, Indiana University School of Journalism; Jessica Birthisel, Bridgewater State University • The 2013 Steubenville rape trial featured a sadly familiar story of juvenile acquaintance rape; what captured national interest in the case, however, was how the rapists and peer witnesses captured video and photos of the assault and disseminated them in social media. This qualitative textual framing analysis explores how national news coverage of the case framed technology in relation to the assault, particularly how technology was framed as witness, galvanizer, and threat.
When a change isn’t really a change: Sampling error in coverage of presidential approval ratings • Matthew Reavy, University of Scranton; Kimberly Pavlick, University of Scranton • This study extends research into how journalists handle sampling error within polls by examining coverage of President Obama’s approval ratings in three major newspapers over a five-year period. Results indicate support for hypotheses suggesting that, when confronted with poll results that could be explained by sampling error alone, journalists will instead emphasize those changes or differences. Special attention is given to difficulties involving “records” and results depicted as crossing an arbitrary line.
Converging on Quality: Integrating the St. Louis Beacon and St. Louis Public Radio Newsrooms • Frank Michael Russell, University of Missouri/Missouri School of Journalism; Esther Thorson; Margaret Duffy, Missouri School of Journalism; Heesook Choi • This paper reports the first phase of research about the merger of the St. Louis Beacon, a nonprofit online news startup, and St. Louis Public Radio. Based on a semi-structured interview with the editor of St. Louis Public Radio and a content analysis of articles posted on the two organizations’ websites, we conclude that the combined news organization has made initial progress in integrating complementary strengths based on several quantitative indicators of news quality.
Controlling The Conversation: The Availability Of Commenting Forums By News Topic In Online Newspapers • Arthur Santana, University of Houston • Reader commenting forums of online newspaper sites allow newsreaders the opportunity to participate in an online conversation about the news topic at hand, furthering the democracy-enabling function of newspapers. The forums, however, are not universally available following all news stories. This research investigates the extent to which some news topics are more likely than others to come with a commenting forum, adding a new dimension to newspapers’ ability to set the public agenda.
Graphic Display in News Stories • Frederick Schiff, University of Houston; David Llanos, University of Houston • Two exhaustive models of news coverage predict graphic display in newspaper stories. All the leading theories of news play are incorporated in a three-level Hierarchical Linear Model, specifying story-level, newspaper-level and ownership-level variables. A separate Factor Analysis Model found five “common-sense” story types. OLS analysis produced the most parsimonious set of significant variables from the competing models and theories and yielded an Adjusted R2 of 9.3 percent of the explained variance in predicting graphic display.
Journalist’s Perceived Knowledge and Use of Heuristics in Selecting Sources and Story Ideas for Health News Reporting • Heather Shoenberger, University of Missouri; Shelly Rodgers, University of Missouri at Columbia • This study seeks to identify differences between reporters with low versus high perceived knowledge on health reporting. We theorized that reporters with lower perceived knowledge were more likely to rely on official/branded sources (short-cuts) for story ideas than their peers who have higher perceived knowledge. Additionally, we sought to discover whether reporters with higher perceived knowledge delve deeper into the health topic by spending more time researching and relying on more technical scientifically based sources than those with lower perceived knowledge. Implications for health reporting and health literacy are discussed.
Get it first, get it fast, get it in fewer than 140 characters: Local vs. regional news microblogging • Amanda Sturgill, Elon University; Dana Gullquist • As traditional news outlets such as newspapers are using microblogging as a way to break news stories, questions about the lack of context and the lack of confirmation prior to publication are arising. One area that has been less examined is the differential effects in newspapers of different sizes. This paper considers the coverage of the shootings at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Conn., with comparison of the Twitter feed from the local weekly, a regional daily and a state-wide publication via content analysis. All three covered the story on Twitter, but even though the social medium reached a worldwide potential audience, the content of the Tweets were differentiated as if for the audience for the print product. The small weekly was more accurate than the larger dailies were.
Take me inside and tell me what’s important: What do readers want from journalists they follow on social media • Amanda Sturgill, Elon University; Max Negin, Elon University; Margaret Sloane • As more news consumers are finding their stories on social media, there is increasing pressure on news outlets and journalists to meet and interact with the audience there. However, concerns over social media’s disruption of the established news process and its credibility safeguards, and worries over the financial pressures that have already stressed journalists to an extreme have meant there is not a clear model of how best to use the new tools. This paper looks at one aspect of the issue: audience expectations. Responses (n=422) to an open question about journalists in social media asked on Facebook by a popular newspaper columnist were thematically analyzed. Researchers found that readers wanted journalists on social media to provide auxiliary content and to engage with readers about the process of story development. Implications for journalistic practice are discussed.
Why web analytics click: Factors affecting the ways journalists use audience metrics • Edson Tandoc, Nanyang Technological University • This study, based on a survey of 210 online editors, proposes a theoretical framework guided by field theory that explains the patterns of how journalists use web analytics in news work. This framework is tested using structural equation modeling and finds that journalists’ perception of competition in the field, and their conceptions of the audience as a particular form of capital, lead them to using web analytics in particular ways.
A tale of two newsrooms: How market orientation influences web analytics use • Edson Tandoc, Nanyang Technological University; Patrick Ferrucci, Bradley University • This current study compares a strongly market-oriented newsroom and a weakly market-oriented newsroom in terms of how they used web analytics in news work. Using ethnographic methods, the study finds that web analytics influenced editorial decisions in both newsrooms. However, the two newsrooms differed in the extent to which they used analytics and in their reasons for doing so. These differences are examined using the framework of market theory in news construction.
Making Business News: A Production Analysis of The New York Times and The Implications for Accountability Journalism • Nikki Usher, The George Washington University • The 2007-2009 financial crisis and its lingering after-effects have provoked strong reactions about the place of business journalism in creating public interest journalism. Questions often associated with government-journalist relationships have recently been asked of business news, from concerns about sourcing practices to the implications of ownership. To move the discourse about the financial crisis forward, it is important to understand how journalists produce and create business news. This article stems from five months of ethnographic research at The New York Times and aims to offer insight into business news production at the nation’s leading newspaper. From a theoretical perspective, it offers an evaluation of the significance of the values embedded in news creation for understanding the potential for watchdog journalism. The article considers critiques about the political economy of business journalism, but data ultimately suggest that that Gans’ (1979) “responsible capitalism” offers a guiding framework for understanding journalists’ decision-making. This perspective has both strengths and weaknesses for developing accountability journalism. Ultimately, the article argues that journalists, per se, may not be the problem, but the traditional structures of journalistic output may be in part to blame for the limitations of accountability business journalism.
Intermedia agenda-setting in a multimedia environment: The case of national elections in Austria • Ramona Vonbun, Institut of University of Vienna, Department of Communication; Katharina Kleinen-von Königslöw; Klaus Schoenbach • This paper analyzes the intermedia agenda-setting process of 34 newspapers, online news sites and TV-news in a nationwide setting through automatic content analysis and time series analysis. The findings suggest that the opinion leader role of a medium depends on issue specific characteristics such as obtrusiveness, mediating the intermedia agenda-setting process. Additionally, the traditional role of print media as intermedia agenda-setters may be challenged by online news sites, especially for issues with an online focus.
Characteristics of Newspaper Stories For and Against Tobacco Control • Zongyuan Wang, University of Missouri at Columbia; Ginny Chadwick, University of Missouri; Shelly Rodgers, University of Missouri at Columbia • To answer the call for more systematic surveillance and evaluation of newspaper coverage of tobacco, a 7-year content analysis of Missouri newspapers examined characteristics of newspaper stories for and against tobacco control. Results showed that pro-tobacco control themes (i.e., non-smokers’ rights, public health) were dominant; however, a considerable number of newspaper stories were against tobacco control. Pro-tobacco control themed stories were less prominent than anti-tobacco control themed stories in terms of story size as well as number of graphics, and less localized in terms of local sources cited, localized sentences, as well as ordinary citizens as authors. In spite of this, stories for control did focus on providing more information related to public health and more resources for references and were more likely to mobilize readers to change their health behavior and their community. This study calls for an increase in prominence and localization of pro-tobacco control news stories.
Student Papers
Preparatory Journalism: The College Newspaper as a Pedagogical Tool • David Bockino • This study utilizes a national survey of college newspaper advisers to assess the pedagogical benefits of the college newspaper. It finds significant differences between the degree of audience and marketing coupling occurring within college and U.S. daily newspapers as well as differences in student autonomy among college newspapers with varying financial foundations. The results call into question the role of the college newspaper within a changing media environment.
Local Press Politics: Transparency and the Lobbying Efforts of Newspaper Associations in the U.S. • Michael Clay Carey, Ohio University • Media companies have a long history of actively lobbying federal and state governments on issues related to freedom of information, as well as policies that affect media revenues. This study examines media lobbying efforts at the state level, where local press associations actively lobby state legislatures on issues that affect daily and weekly newspapers. Using journalistic understandings of transparency as a foundation, the research considers how newspaper associations characterize their efforts to shape public policy through lobbying, what issues they emphasize as priorities on public websites, and how their online statements about public policy compare to actual money spent lobbying on behalf of newspapers. Newspapers and newspaper associations are fierce advocates for transparency in government, but this research suggests that newspaper associations are not especially transparent about their own involvement in the governmental process. Many associations considered in this study provided little information about the money and time spent lobbying the government to make it easier for reporters to do their job and for newspapers to turn a profit. The study argues that, as advocates for government transparency and important actors in democratic societies themselves, newspapers (and, by extension, the press associations they constitute) have a moral obligation to be transparent about such matters.
Seeing Through the User’s Eyes: The Role of Journalists’ Audience Perceptions in Their Use of Technology • Mark Coddington, University of Texas at Austin • Using a national survey of U.S. newspaper journalists, this study examines whether journalists’ perceptions of their audience are a significant factor in their implementation of new technologies. Findings indicate that journalists’ perception of audience demand is significantly associated with increased technology use, though perceptions of the audience’s technological use and access are not a significant factor. In addition, the relationship between audience perception and technology use is stronger for smaller newspapers than larger ones.
You’ll Never Believe What They Found: Examining Potential Uses of Clickbait in Headlines • Holly Cowart, University of Florida; Jeffrey Riley, University of Florida • This study explores how exposure to clickbait-style headlines influences a reader’s likelihood to read, share, and trust story content based on mere exposure effect. Survey respondents reported their level of new media versus traditional media use. The 172 respondents then selected stories they would read, share, and trust based on headline style. The study found a relationship between reported use of media and level of trust toward clickbait-style headlines.
Accessibility-heuristic and changes of media frames • Byung Wook Kim, University of Iowa; Subin Paul, University of Iowa • This study examined changes of the U.S. media frames of the Fukushima disaster, mainly focusing on the frames that discussed in the previous studies as cues inducing individuals’ different decision value regarding safety concerns. We found that “uncertainty” option increased over time with a “loss-frame” being dominant, and the proportion of undesirable consequences in a story decreased. We concluded that frame-changing by the U.S. media has likely invoked public perception of safety in Fukushima positively.
What makes “good” news newsworthy? • Karen McIntyre, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • For decades, the media have been criticized for focusing too much on negative news. As a result, news outlets exist that only publish happy, positive stories. A content analysis was conducted to determine the news value of stories published on five online “good” news outlets. Stories were coded for the presence or absence of traditional news values, such as impact, timeliness, etc. Results indicated that stories from “good” news websites were overwhelmingly entertaining and emotional and lacked common news values such as conflict and references to power authority figures. Implications are discussed.
News Goes Native: An Examination of Online News Media’s Disclosure Practices for Sponsored Content • Joseph Moore, University of Nebraska at Lincoln • Online news publishers are increasingly using sponsored content that assumes the format of the host site’s editorial content. This has led to concern among some in the journalism industry that readers will be unable to distinguish advertising from news editorial. A content analysis and an experiment examined how publishers are formatting sponsored content and how readers are processing disclosure information for sponsored content. The results suggest that current labeling and disclosure practices may be inadequate in alerting readers to the commercial nature of sponsored content.
The gender gap revisited: Pattern persists of under-representing female candidates in newspapers’ election coverage • Audrey Post, Florida State University • Much has been written over the past 40 years about female political candidates, their efforts to shatter the so-called “glass ceiling,” and the effects of media coverage on women’s candidacies. Despite gains in equity of coverage and the prominence of female candidates in the 2008 presidential election, an analysis of newspaper coverage of the 2010 election for Florida governor revealed the gender gap persists, even when a woman is a major-party nominee.
The News Agenda Online: Hyperlinks on Traditional Prestige Media and Internet-Only Websites • Frank Michael Russell, University of Missouri/Missouri School of Journalism • This study examines the use of hyperlinks in articles on traditional prestige and online-only news websites in the context of agenda building, intermedia agenda-setting, and gatekeeping theories. Evidence is found that news organizations use hyperlinks primarily for the gatekeeping function of sending readers to content elsewhere on their websites. However, hyperlinks also show to varying extents that news organizations are influenced by other news media more than official or expert sources.
Transformation of the Print: Examining the Diminishing News Orientation of Leading American Newspapers • Miki Tanikawa, University of Texas at Austin • Over the last several decades, newspapers have shed their news orientation in favor of features and analytical news stories in large part to differentiate themselves from their on-line rivals which have a clear speed advantage. Content analyses of leading American newspapers found that today only 35 percent of the front page articles are traditional, event centered news articles, down from 69 percent 25 years ago.
Minorities and Communication 2014 Abstracts
Faculty Research Competition
Content Analysis of the Portrayal of White Characters in Black Films Across Two Decades • Omotayo Banjo, University of Cincinnati; Nancy Jennings, University of Cincinnati; Nikole Dorsett, University of Cincinnati; Todd Fraley, East Carolina State University • Whiteness scholars contend, in addition to marginalized groups, Whites are also victims of socio-political constructions of race. Little empirical attention has been given to the portrayals of Whites in ethnic-oriented media, where whiteness is most conspicuous. We conducted a content analysis of 31 Black-oriented films spanning two decades. Such investigations a) position ethnic-oriented media as necessary sites for race scholarship and b) shed insight into how ethnic media creators use film to illustrate racial tensions.
Trayvon Martin and the News: An Analysis of Rhetoric in Website Messages by Civil Rights Organizations • Riva Brown, University of Central Arkansas • This qualitative content analysis explored rhetoric used by the NAACP, National Urban League, National Action Network, and ColorOfChange.org in press releases, blog posts, and miscellaneous public relations material during the Trayvon Martin case. It also examined their mainstream print news media coverage. After George Zimmerman fatally shot Martin and was not charged with his murder, these organizations demanded justice. Results suggested they preferred rhetorical strategies and tactics that encouraged supporters to unite against perceived enemies.
Richard Sherman Speaks and Almost Breaks the Internet: Race, Media, and Football • Margaret Duffy, Missouri School of Journalism; Janis Teruggi Page, George Washington University; Cynthia Frisby, University of Missouri; Brad Best, Missouri School of Journalism • A controversial interview with football player Richard Sherman was the subject of extensive controversy and enormous reaction in mainstream and social media, especially through Twitter and shared visual memes. Through the lenses of Critical Race Theory, Visual Rhetoric, and Symbolic Convergence Theory, we see the Richard Sherman incident as revelatory of the persistent and interlocking patterns of racism and sexism in contemporary society.
Ethnic Identity as a Predictor of Microaggressive Behavior Towards Blacks, Whites, and Hispanic LGBs by Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics • Troy Elias, University of Oregon; Alyssa Jaisle; Cynthia R. Morton Padovano • Racial differences still exist when it comes to attitudes toward homosexuality in the U.S. Blacks hold significantly less favorable attitudes towards LGB than Whites but not Hispanics after controlling for demographics. Despite less favorable attitudes towards the LGB community, Blacks display a significantly lower likelihood of engaging in microaggressions than both Whites and Hispanics. Finally, as Whites’ ethnic identity gets stronger, their likelihood of engaging in microaggressions to LGB increases, moreso than Blacks or Hispanics.
Examining cultural resonance of health narratives to influence HIV prevention behaviors among young African Americans • Diane Francis; Joan Cates; Adaora Adimora • Concurrent sexual partnerships—sexual partnerships that overlap in time—may contribute to the high rates of HIV among African Americans. Changing attitudes, perceived norms and motivations about concurrency, therefore, could potentially reduce participation in this behavior, which in turn could reduce HIV transmission rates. This study examined African American students’ reactions to HIV prevention messages developed for a health communication campaign to reduce concurrent sexual partnerships. We used radio advertisements to explore whether narrative messages were more effective than non-narrative messages in influencing attitudes and beliefs about sexual concurrency. We also examined whether participants thought the messages were culturally resonant and engaging or transporting. Cultural resonance of messages is important in health communication campaigns. However, few studies have examined the effectiveness of HIV prevention messages in cultural narrative format. A survey of African American students (n=211) found the non-narrative messages to be more culturally resonant (t(196) = 2.92, p<.01) and transporting (t(196) = 1.72, p=.09) than the narrative messages. In qualitative analysis, participants said that the narrative ads were stereotypical and not representative of their culture, both of which could potentially detract from any attempts at persuasion. There were no statistically significant differences between the groups on attitudes, perceived norms or motivations. Given that health stories are increasingly being used to influence HIV-related attitudes, beliefs and motivations among African Americans, it is important to examine factors such as perceived cultural resonance to design more effective culturally appropriate messages.
The impact of emotional costs on racial digital divide • Kuo-Ting Huang, Michigan State University; Shelia Cotten, Michigan State University • Computer intervention in the classroom has been proved to increase students’ self-efficacy in previous racial digital divide research. This paper further investigates how African American’s psychological factors impact their patterns of computer usage. The results suggest that students’ emotional cost and computer self-efficacy were mediators of the relationship between home computer usage and information orientation. These findings provide significant implications for bridging the racial digital divide by highlighting the roles of these psychological factors.
Racial Attitudes, Egalitarian Values, and Media Use • Tien-Tsung Lee, University of Kansas; Yvonnes Chen, University of Kansas • Most studies on attitudes toward racial equality have focused on one single egalitarian value and a limited number of media variables. A survey of U.S. adults (N=7,025) indicated that support for racial equality is part of three egalitarian dimensions (racial attitudes, gender roles, and attitudes toward sexual minorities), suggesting that egalitarian values apply to supporting equality for multiple social groups. Additionally, the use of traditional and Internet media is associated with racial attitudes.
Casting Youth as Information Leaders: Social Media in Latino Families and Implications for Mobilization • Michael McDevitt; Shannon Sindorf, University of Colorado Boulder • Promotion of the DREAM Act during the 2012 campaign presented an opportunity to examine how social media might cast young adults in the role of information leaders in Latino families. Despite widespread use of social media and interest in the DREAM Act, Latinos lagged behind non-Latinos in voting and in discussion about politics with family and friends. We discuss how mobilization efforts in future elections can harness new media by recruiting youth as information leaders.
Power, Gender, and Ethnic Spaces: Geographies of Power Shifts in Roma Communities • Adina Schneeweis, Oakland University • This study examines the inextricable (and understudied) link between ethnicity, gender, power, and space. Through the case study of health mediators of Roma ethnicity in Romania, this research bridges spatial theory and feminist scholarship with critical approaches to communication to assess how gender and power relations operate in, and mark, ethnic spaces. Drawing from ethnographic observations and in-depth interviews, I argue that power relations are dependent on space – and mobile across ethnic spaces. Perceptions of the mediators’ power roles change between institutional landscapes (perceived spaces of hegemonic, dominant directives), Romani communities (conceived space where the Romani mediators communicate their knowledge and have symbolic control), and the lived space of resistance and internalized discrimination, which is both an active constituent of, and a challenge to, racism at the same time.
Effects of Mediated Exemplars on Implicit Prejudice Toward Hispanics • Alexis Tan, Washington State University; Salah Alghaithi, Washington State University; Christine Curtis; Davi Kallman; Chenwei Liang; Cameron Moody; Somava Pande, Washington State University; Rachel Sauerbier, Washington State University; Kara Stuart, Washington State University; Chun Yang, Washington State University; Sabrina Zearott, Washington State University • This study asked whether a single exposure to a positive Hispanic exemplar in a video clip could reduce implicit prejudice toward U.S. Hispanics. Participants were White and non-White college students at a large U.S. university.Selected to appeal to college students, the video clip portrayed a Hispanic female student who overcame prejudice to excel in college. The video clip was presented in an on-line laboratory experiment.Implicit prejudice was measured by the Hispanic/White Implicit Association test which taps automatic and implicit preference for Whites over Hispanics. Results show that White participants who watched the video clip reported significantly less negative implicit bias toward Hispanics compared to White participants who did not watch the video clip. Non-White participants who watched the video clip reported a slight preference for Hispanics over Whites, while non-White participants who did not watch the video clip reported no preference for Whites over Hispanics. Therefore, the video clip decreased pro-White bias among Whites, and increased pro-Hispanic bias among non-Whites.We explain these results using principles from priming and conversion models of stereotype and prejudice change. We also discuss implications for using positive exemplars in the media to reduce prejudice.
The Cultural Capital of Ethnic Immigrant Newspapers in the U.S. • Tim Vos, University of Missouri; Yulia Medvedeva, University of Missouri • This study uses in-depth interviews with representatives of ten ethnic immigrant newspapers to examine the cultural capital of the ethnic press and how that cultural capital compares to the cultural capital of journalism in the U.S. mainstream press. The study finds that ethnic immigrant newspapers, with some notable exceptions, do not appear to hold substantially different cultural capital from the US mainstream press.
Politics in the Toybox: Sports reporters, Native American mascots and the roadblocks preventing change • Erin Whiteside, University of Tennessee • Despite increasing pressure from sporting organizations and other key public figures, myriad schools, colleges, Universities and professional sports teams continue to employ Native American mascots. Furthermore, advocates continue to face staunch opposition in defending their position that teams abandon Native American imagery. Sports journalists occupy a unique location within the mascot debate as they regularly cover teams with Native American mascots and it is common practice to refer to the mascots within stories. The visibility sports reporters give to mascots contributes to a desensitizing process in which the public may become alienated from the serious social costs such imagery may incur. In light of this ongoing debate, this research uses a survey to examine sports reporters’ experiences and attitudes toward Native American mascots, and their beliefs about the role sports reporters should take in the public debate.
Eyes on the Prize I: Henry Hampton’s pre-production school sessions and the role of the media in the civil rights movement • Kathleen Wickham, University of Mississippi • Eyes on the Prize, the two-part PBS series, is one of the most significant research projects on civil rights activities in the United States. This manuscript focuses on the detailed research process that Hampton employed prior to filming, focusing on the pre-production lectures and talks relating the media and the civil rights movement.
‘Return of the King’: A Millenial Audience Reception of The Boondocks • Jason Zenor, SUNY-Oswego; David Moody • Critics have raised their eyebrows at the work of Boondocks creator McGruder repeatedly accusing him of making a mockery of the legacies of Rosa Parks and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (Associated Press, 2006). They have questioned his insensitivity to the 9-11 attacks and the promotion of misogynistic themes through the voice of his characters. Moreover, his frequent use of the ‘N-word’ has been considered to be offensive. Accordingly, this study examines how a millennial audience, one which came to age in an era of political correctness and in a supposed post-racial society, reads The Boondocks, a text that seems to challenge political correctness and the acceptance of a truly post-racial America.
Student Paper
A Fusion of Stereotypes? How Fusion Network Handles Hispanic Representation • Brooke Biolo • The recently launched (2013) network, Fusion, is a collaboration of the Spanish-language Univision and ABC/Disney. US television has a long history of reducing Hispanics to stereotypical roles in television and these two networks have opposing backgrounds on this front. This analysis looks at how Fusion handles established stereotypes of Hispanics in media. I argue that Fusion endorses a multicultural world image through an emphasis on universal themes and Hispanic cultural positives in their programming.
Don’t Worry, Be Happy: An Examination of Journalist Message Boards • Kortni Alston, University of Florida College of Journalism and Communications; Kevin Hull, University of Florida; Anthony Palomba • This study explored whether or not journalists vented their workplace frustrations on online message boards. A content analysis of the National Association of Black Journalists message board and the TVSpy Watercooler message board was conducted. Results found that symptoms leading to burnout were not frequently discussed, and that NABJ message board was found to be significantly more positive in tone than the TVSpy Watercooler board. Factors including race, anonymity, and sense of community are discussed.
Black nerds, Asian activists, & Caucasian dogs: Racialized self-categorization within Facebook Groups • Jenny Korn • Facebook Groups reflect a contemporary way for users to demonstrate membership in cultural groups that are salient to them, including ones based on race. Race continues to serve as a meaningful category for understanding the social world, especially in the United States (Chao, Hong, & Chiu, 2013), so Internet-based displays of racial membership via Facebook Groups reflect the ongoing significance of race. In this paper, I contribute to the “new cultural politics of difference” by focusing on modern, organic representations of race on the Internet (West, 1993). While Facebook has been the site of study for individual behavior (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007), Facebook Group behavior has been understudied (Park, Kee, & Valenzuela, 2009). I update self-categorization theory with its application not to individuals, but to racialized groups online, as examples of cultural markers of identification (Turner & Reynolds, 2011). Facebook Groups are cultural representations of the way that individuals understand their racial group membership (Rockquemore & Arend, 2002). Facebook Groups serve as voluntary communities open to users that desire homophilic relationships. In this study, I focus on race-based Facebook Groups as sites of cultural identification for users. Within Facebook, I examine discourses by racial identity groups that are White/Caucasian, Black/African-American, and Asian/Asian-American. By analyzing digital discourses created by users in racialized Facebook Groups, I conduct a contemporary study on cross-racial variance across online identity groups. The discourses on the politics surrounding culture are changing, forcing Internet representations of race to follow suit. This study explores how race matters online.
Pluralistic Ignorance in Sino-Hong Kong Conflicts: The Perception of Chinese Mainland People Living in Hong Kong • Miao Li, The Chinese University of Hong Kong • This study examined pluralistic ignorance in a local context: conflicts between Hong Kong and Mainland China. Different from past studies mainly focusing on in-group pluralistic ignorance, which examined whether people could correctly perceive the opinions of others who belong to the same social group as they do, this study investigated whether people could correctly perceive the public opinion of a collective to which they do not belong. With two representative samples of Chinese mainland students studying in Hong Kong and Hong Kong local students from three universities in Hong Kong, this study discovered that mainland students overestimated the local public’s unfavorability against Chinese mainlanders and the Chinese government. This overestimation was found to be positively associated with their attention to media content about the Sino-Hong Kong relationship and the extent to which they perceive pertinent media content to be biased toward Hong Kong, but negatively associated with their interpersonal communications with other Hong Kong residents about the Sino-Hong Kong relationship issues. The overestimation of the local public’s unfavorability against Chinese mainlanders and Chinese government reduced mainland students’ willingness to stay in Hong Kong for further study/work and domicile. To extend the pluralistic ignorance research to study how migrants perceive the mainstream opinion in the society to which they migrated was suggested.
Coverage of Meskwaki Language in the Des Moines Register • Subin Paul, University of Iowa • The issue of tribal language endangerment receives minimal attention in the mainstream press. This preliminary study looks at the coverage of Meskwaki language, which is spoken by the Meskwaki tribe of Iowa, in the Des Moines Register. Using qualitative textual analysis, the study shows that the newspaper promoted bilingualism involving English and Meskwaki languages and proscribed the solo use of the latter.
Different news, distinct views (on immigration): The choice of labels and sources on FoxNews.com and Fox News Latino • Vinicio Sinta, University of Texas at Austin • The recent launch of ethnic-oriented news outlets by mainstream media companies can provide an opening for alternative views on public issues such as immigration. This study compares how Fox News Latino and parent site FoxNews.com used distinctive labels to describe unauthorized immigrants and immigration legislation, and turned to a different mix of sources in their coverage. Results show that despite the shared ownership and brand, Fox News Latino and FoxNews.com provide contrasting perspectives on immigration.
Finding the First Lady: The Construction and Negotiation of Michelle Obama’s Identity • Leticia Williams, Howard University • Dominant media portrayals of the first lady and Black women have increasingly become the guiding parameter for contemporary understandings of women whose identities and characterizations are contingent on prevalent typologies. Though similar in analysis of identity and representation, these two areas of study have developed in separate lines of research. The purpose of this study is to identify and examine the multiple and fluid identities of First Lady Obama and synthesize studies of gender, race, and presidential spouses. A textual analysis of 22 articles published between January 2009 and January 2012 was used to explore the construction of intersectional identities and strategies to negotiate stereotypes, historical representations, or limited characterizations of the first lady and Black women. Findings showed that magazine portrayals of First Lady Obama’s identity communicated shared understandings of intersectionality (i.e., race, gender, and class) as a social phenomenon, particularly for women.
Media Management and Economics 2014 Abstracts
What Motivates Online Shoppers to “Like” Brands’ Facebook Fan Pages? • Mohammad Abuljadail, Bowling Green State University, Ohio; Fang Wang, Bowling Green State University, Ohio; Liu Yang • “Brands’ Facebook fan pages have been frequently used as a marketing tool to reach to more individuals; however, Facebook users’ motivations to participate in those fan pages are still unclear. This paper investigates the motives that stimulate online shoppers to “like” brands’ Facebook fan pages. This study is interested in knowing if online shoppers’ proclivity to “like” brands’ Facebook fan pages is based on their hedonic or utilitarian motivations. The authors propose a model based on hedonic and utilitarian motivations and uses and gratifications theoretical framework. An online survey was conducted among college students who shopped online in Northwest Ohio (N=198). The findings show that utilitarian motivations have positive significant relationships with “liking” brands’ Facebook fan pages.
Going Public: The role of Public relations in Initial Public Offering (IPO) communication • Jee-Young Chung, Southern Utah University; Eyun-Jung Ki, The University of Alabama • The present study aims to investigate the role of public relations in initial public offering (IPO) communication and the features of IPO disclosure utilizing Impression Management theory. Specifically, the present study examines the public relations practices in IPO process in terms of financial disclosure (i.e., form S-1: registration statements) and the media attention during the Quiet Period. The prospectuses of 248 IPO companies during 2013 were content analyzed based on IM strategies. Media relations efforts of those companies and media attention on companies were analyzed, and whether it relates to investors’ evaluation and attention on IPO companies. The results suggest the practical guidelines for IPO disclosure for public relations practice.
Promoting and Branding of News on Twitter: An Examination of CNN International • Michael North, University of Miami; Terry Bloom, University of Miami; Eisa al Nashmi, Kuwait University; Johanna Cleary • This content analysis examines the individual Twitter accounts of three high-profile reporter/anchors, and the corresponding network feed at CNN International, and how they used those tweets for branding and promotion. Specifically, it looks at 1,158 tweets from CNN International reporters/anchors Christiane Amanpour, Becky Anderson, and Richard Quest, and the general Twitter feed for CNNi. The tweets were issued over the course of one month in late 2013. The study confirmed that this important legacy media company often uses its various Twitter feeds to promote and brand their products. Results showed that CNNi’s strategic use of Twitter feeds varied between classifications of feeds (i.e. individual and network-specific). The individual reporter/anchor feeds were more likely to demonstrate branding and promotional messages than was the network feed, while the latter was more likely to concentrate on breaking news and news updates. Overall, CNNi’s Twitter presence offered an opportunity for branding and promoting its various products, programs, and personnel.
Media brands as symbolic resources – An audience-centered approach • Kati Förster, University of Vienna; Sabine Baumann, Jade University; Katharina Kleinen-von Königslöw • As never before media are expressions of people’s self-concepts for themselves as well as for others. In displaying media use habits or preferences in one’s social environment, media products provide relevant constituents in producing the social self. The aim of this paper is to explore the use of (popular) media brands in everyday media practices, and to uncover their symbolic meanings for identity practices of affiliation with in-groups and distinction towards out-groups. We suggest an audience-centered approach that considers different levels of aggregation and, by that, functions of media brands. At an individual level we investigated everyday media practices using online media diaries (n = 59) over a period of four weeks. Based on these findings we selected twelve genres to explore their symbolic impact within a social group using a projective technique (n = 225). The results show that only six of the selected twelve genres serve as distinctive features when signalling a certain social belonging towards others: News as informative content, comedy shows as performative content and comedy as fictional entertainment are those genres that act as social ‘glue’ in our investigated group. Contrastingly, society formats, scripted documentaries and fantasy/science fiction/horror increase distinction, as they negatively affect likability and the perceived similarity with oneself and/or with friends.
Media management education: Challenges, key themes and pedagogies • Kati Förster, University of Vienna; Ulrike Rohn, U of Tartu • “The media sphere has changed significantly as a result of globalization, technology and new modes of media use habits. Scholars in journalism and mass communication thus call on a transformation and reinvention of higher education in the field. The purpose of this article is to investigate how media management is taught across different institutions, and how educators cope with this interdisciplinary, international and dynamic field. In an online-survey we asked educators from fourteen different countries across Europe about the key themes addressed in teaching, the pedagogies applied and the fundamental challenges.
Organizational Strategic Decision Processes at U.S. Newspapers: A Study of Mobile Business Model Innovation • Geoffrey Graybeal, Texas Tech University • Using strategic management theories of organizational decision-making and upper echelons as theoretical frameworks, this study addresses the strategic decision processes used by U.S. daily newspapers to address mobile disruption of newspaper business models. Through a nationwide survey of publishers of daily newspapers, the study found that the majority of newspaper publishers do not perceive wireless mobile devices as a disruptive threat to their business, and thus engage in a comprehensive decision-making process.
The resilience of journalists who remain: A longitudinal study of technological and economic changes at newspapers and journalists’ perceived identities • Amber Hinsley, Saint Louis University • This longitudinal study used online surveys of newspaper journalists to explore how they believe technological and economic changes affected their job roles in 2010 and 2014. Using social identity theory, the research also investigates whether those changes have impacted newspaper journalists’ connections to their organization (known as organizational identification) and to the profession (professional identification). Implications for managers include the enduring nature of OI and PI in the face of a continually changing industry.
Factors Affecting Mobile Application Usage: Exploring the Roles of Gender, Age, and Application Types • Kyung-Ho Hwang, Sungkyunkwan University; Sylvia Chan-Olmsted, University of Florida; Sang-Hyun Nam, Sungkyunkwan University; Byeng-Hee Chang, Sungkyunkwan University • Adopting the uses and gratifications perspective, this study investigates the effect of mobile apps types, and the moderating effects of gender and age on mobile apps usage through actual user experience, as captured by metered software on a sample of mobile phone users in the United States. The variable of apps usage is examined from both the width (i.e., reach) and depth (i.e., intensity) aspect to capture the multiplicity of mobile apps usage behavior.
Structural Changes in Communities and Newspaper Circulation in the Digital Age • SEOK HO LEE, University of Texas at Austin • Despite growing concerns over decline in newspaper circulation, only a few studies have examined determinants of the slump in the digital age, and most of them have limitedly focused on technological factors, such as the effect of the Internet. Present study examines to what extent structural changes in the neighborhood affects newspaper circulation in order to provide holistic understanding of the decline in newspaper circulation. We investigated four important neighborhood attributes, which influence newspaper circulation: penetration of high-speed Internet, median household income, long distance residential mobility, and voter turnout. Evidence presents that the decline in newspaper circulation results from a combination of diverse factors, rather than a single determinant. In particular, the effect of long distance residential mobility and median household income challenges the conventional belief that newspaper circulation has a positive relationship with length of residency and earned income. While there are speculations on imminent demise of printed newspapers, the results suggest that newspapers may survive as did in the rise of the previous technology evolution with radio and television, once the nation recovers from political cynicism and stagnant residential mobility.
Is traditional media losing audience? • Qianni Luo, Ohio University • This study sought to determine several variables that may influence people’s choice to shift from old to new media. These included time spent on social activities, the structure of traditional media, the user’s gender, and use of social media. Based on the theory of uses and gratifications, logic of media economics, and time budget theory, all of those variables potentially influence people’s choice of the Internet over traditional media. A secondary data retrieved from Pew Research Center’s 2012 media consumption survey was used in this project. Twelve questions from the questionnaire regarding people’s media usage were mainly analyzed in this article. The results indicate that time spent on social activities, gender and the structure of newspapers influence time spent on the Internet.
Mobile News Business Models: Promise or Pitfall? • Logan Molyneux, University of Texas • The narrative surrounding mobile news is one of opportunity, just as optimism characterized early online news ventures. But have newspapers venture into mobile, are they repeating the same mistakes they made online? This study conducts a meta-analysis of industry data to determine what business models newspapers use in mobile markets in order to predict performance in the long run. Results suggest newspapers’ mobile efforts rely on the same old business models that failed them online which, given the additional challenges of mobile, are even less likely to succeed. Faulty assumptions behind this approach and suggested ways forward are discussed.
Repeat Consumption of Media Goods: Examining the Factors Affecting Repeat Theatrical Viewing of Movies • Byeng-Hee Chang, Sungkyunkwan University; Sang-Hyun Nam, Sungkyunkwan University; Sylvia Chan-Olmsted, University of Florida; hun kim • This study explored the factors affecting repeat theatrical viewing of movies. By using a comprehensive framework of four variable groups, content characteristics, audience characteristics, social influence, and availability/competition, the analysis reveals several important findings. A theoretically significant discovery is that the drivers of repeat viewing of media contents might be very different from the first viewing of those contents. This study also discovers differences between first and second repeat viewing of theatrical movies.
Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A) Strategy and the Financial Health of Internet Media Firms • Huyen Nguyen, Ohio University • Do mergers and acquisitions bring more profits for traditional media firms? The question has long been asked by many scholars in the field of media management and economics (Rizzuto, 2006). However, their answers have never been consistent. Observing the popular use of M&A strategy by Internet media firms, this paper reconsiders this controversial issue. Our selected sample includes 9 public firms: Amazon, AOL, Apple, Facebook, Google, Microsoft, Twitter, Yahoo and Zynga. As a result, we found a significant positive linear relationship between the current profit margin and total acquisition costs of these firms. Besides, we also found that these firms tend to acquire firms having the same SIC (Standard Industrial Classication) code, to empower their core assets and competences, as well as get rid of potential competitors.
Brand Personalities of Video Game Consoles • Anthony Palomba • As consumers play video game consoles, they become more engaged and formulate a relationship with them. From this, perceived brand personality traits may manifest among consumers. This study created brand personality scales for all seventh generation video game consoles including Nintendo’s Wii, Microsoft’s XBOX 360 and Sony’s PlayStation 3. Principal component factor analyses were conducted to measure each video game console’s brand personality and across all three video game consoles.
The AM Radio Conundrum • Ian Punnett, Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication/ASU • Due to radio frequency encroachment from all electronics, AM radio signal quality is deteriorating. As a result, the FCC is offering unprecedented technical assistance. This exploratory study documents the disposition of media managers about the future of the AM band, the recent FCC’s efforts and role of new technologies. Findings show that elite interviewees offered candid and surprising comments on the state of AM radio and the advent of digital delivery.
Likes, Shares, and Comments: Examining the Relationship between Social Media Metrics and Brand Equity • Ronen Shay, University of Florida • Structural equation modeling is used to explore the relationship between the engagement metrics produced by social networks and brand equity, when mediated by online reach. Relationships explored include: direct effects of online reach on brand equity; direct effects of platform engagement on online reach; which brands generate high engagement; which brands have high online reach; which social networking platform has the greatest indirect effect on brand equity; and which brands are present on which platforms.
Factors Affecting Platform Selection between Offline Television and Online Video • Ronen Shay, University of Florida • This exploratory study provides a comprehensive analysis of the factors that affect platform selection between offline television and online video. The theoretical framework draws from diffusion of innovations theory, the convergence paradigm, brand segmentation research, and layered communication systems to identify a diverse selection of demographics, psychographics, and content selection preferences that act as predictor variables in a multiple discriminant analysis that attempts to classify survey respondents based on their platform preference.
Communication trade associations: Increased value under increased competition? • Amy Sindik, Central Michigan University • This study examines the role broadcast and wireless trade associations play in the competitive communications industry, and if the management perspective on the value of trade associations has changed as the two industries engage in increased competition. The study is conducted through in-person interviews with lobbyists employed by broadcast and wireless organizations. The interviews suggest that competition has increased the value of trade associations to organizations, and has also resulted in member organizations becoming more fully committed to industry trade associations, and having less extreme reactions when trade association and organizational policy stances do not align. The interviews also suggest that benefits of trade association membership in a competitive environment include the ability of a trade association to serve as a political shield for a controversial policy stance and to magnify the voice of individual organizations.
Stability or Rigidity: Management, Boards of Directors and the Newspaper Industry’s Financial Collapse • John Soloski, U of Georgia • This paper examines the composition of the top management of publicly traded newspaper companies and the make up of their boards of directors before and after the industry experienced the worst financial collapse in its history.
Free Newspapers in the United States: Alive and Kicking • James Ian Tennant, Mount Royal University • This study considers the economic health of free newspapers given their heavy reliance on advertising. Do free newspapers face two options?: continue producing free content by relying on advertising (in addition to other revenue sources), or abandon the advertising-based business model. The researcher employed a Web-based survey and in-depth interviews with publishers of four different types of free newspapers. Results show free newspapers are not only viable but in many markets they are thriving.
Entrepreneurial Journalism: Shifting Journalistic Capital? • Tim Vos, University of Missouri; Jane Singer, City University London / University of Iowa • This exploratory study culls references to entrepreneurial journalism from a broad range of industry and popular publications and sites from 2000 to the present, examines the journalism field’s textual and discursive construction of entrepreneurial journalism and explores how this discourse raises issues regarding the principles, norms and ethics of the journalism field. The study found entrepreneurial journalism to be loosely defined and generally portrayed positively and largely free of ethical or normative implications. The study considers what this means for the stability of journalism’s cultural capital.
The Relationship between Twitter Use and Television Ratings A Content Analysis of Television Networks’ Twitter Sites • Yuan Wang, University of Alabama • Television networks are increasingly using social networking sites to interact with the audiences of their programs. Through a content analysis of the Twitter sites of some popular television programs from three big television networks, this study examined the relationship between Twitter use of television networks and television ratings of specific programs, and how these networks used Twitter. One finding was that overall there might be a significant relationship between Twitter use of television networks and television ratings. In particular, the relationship was positive for CBS’s and FOX’s programs, and also for comedy and drama programs. Besides, the relationships between Twitter use and television ratings varied based on different television networks (CBS, ABC and FOX) and program genres (comedy, reality and drama).
Retransmission Consent and Television Blackouts: An Examination of Consumer Reaction • Gillian Wheat • A content analysis examined consumer reaction to a 32-day television blackout that was the result of unsuccessful retransmission consent negotiations between Time Warner Cable and CBS. Comments made on the Facebook pages of Time Warner Cable and CBS during the blackout were analyzed. The findings of the study revealed that the placement of blame for the blackout varied, as did mention of issues such as payment for access to programming and online access to programming.
Competition between Mobile News and Traditional News Media: A Longitudinal Analysis from 2010 to 2014 • Mengchieh Jacie Yang • The current study sought to understand the evolving mobile news landscape with two large-scale online surveys conducted in the United States. With one survey conducted in 2010 and the other in 2014, this study provides a longitudinal perspective for both the news industry and the academic community. With a media economics approach, the results showed that both smartphones and tablet computers remain to be viable news media, complementing traditional news media. Important practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
Gratification Niches of Blogs and Online Legacy News Media: A Study of Competition and Coexistence • Mohammad Yousuf, University of Oklahoma; Peter Gade, Professor at the University of Oklahoma • A survey of young adults explored the extent to which blogs and online legacy news media compete and coexist. Findings indicate that blogs are cutting into niches that used to be controlled by journalism and professional news organizations, suggesting displacement on three dimensions—surveillance gratifications, gratification opportunities and content gratifications. Results also show that legacy media have higher niche breadth and competitive superiority over blogs. Moderate niche overlap between media exists, indicating competition.
Media Ethics 2014 Abstracts
Carol Burnett Award
Bringing an Ethics of Care to Reporting on Suicide • Gemma Richardson, University of Western Ontario • This paper provides an overview of the policies in Canadian newsrooms on covering suicide and concludes that reporting on suicide guided by an ethics of care may prove more effective than prescriptive guidelines stating what journalists can and cannot report. An ethics of care in suicide reporting emphasizes compassion, requiring sensitivity for story sources and subjects. This approach may offer a way to open up the dialogue on suicide in an empathetic and respectful manner.
Their Eyes are Watching: The Ethics of Facebook’s Graphic Content Policy Regarding Violence and Adolescents • Monique Robinson, University of Kansas • In 2013, a video depicting a woman’s beheading was posted to the social media website Facebook in accordance with its then policy. Concern was expressed about adolescent (ages 13-17) exposure to violent graphic content on the website. The following analysis employs the Western ethical concepts of virtue ethics (Aristotle), utilitarianism (Mill), and duty (Kant) to evaluate Facebook’s graphic content policy regarding violence and contemplate if Facebook has an ethical duty to protect adolescent audiences.
Open Competition
A Model of Sectarian News Commenting and Self-Disclosure • Krystin Anderson, University of Florida • Due to controversies about the negative aspects of news commenting sections, this paper proposes a model connecting the reading of sectarian comments to a reader’s decision to self-disclose an ideologically based identity. Drawing on cultivation theory, it suggests that identity reinforcement mediates this relationship, with moderators including extremity of sectarianism expressed, perception of risk and utility, initial identity strength, social identity of the self-disclosure recipient, and the reader’s sense of being in the minority or majority.
Aristotle, Casuistry, and Global Media Ethics • Sandra L. Borden, Western Michigan University • A number of scholars have been working on the project of developing a global media ethics focused on “transnational publics and global problems” (Ward, 2013, p. 2). A virtue approach to ethical issues raised by globalized media has not gotten much attention, however. Yet virtue theory been diffused throughout the globe in a number of ancient and contemporary traditions, resulting in a robust pluralism founded on the centrality of discernment and discretion (Ess, 2013). Virtues provide a culturally sensitive, but non-relativistic, moral foundation that “transcends borders without being historically detached” (Keenan & Shannon, 1995, p. 228). The main purpose of this paper is to propose casuistry as a method for deliberation that complements a broadly Aristotelian framework for media ethics. Casuistry is contextual and dialectical while proceeding incrementally and modestly to yield probable judgments even when there is no agreement on first principles or on a telos. The principal question addressed in this paper is, what are the advantages of casuistry as a deliberative method for a virtue approach to globalized media? A related secondary question is, what are the implications for building a thick global media ethics from the ground up? Briefly, I will argue that casuistry: 1) zeroes in on particulars and reminds us to be cautious about blowing up the scale of ethical reasoning beyond what the situation demands; 2) conceives of moral agents as situated selves and confirms the value of moral expertise; and 3) presses for closure while resisting codification.
Deception by Omission in News Reporting: The Most Harmful Deception in Journalism as an Organizational Behavior • HYUNJEONG CHOI, University of Texas at Austin • Deception in journalism can be defined as any type of verbal or nonverbal practice in journalism that intentionally causes the public to initiate or hold false beliefs. Journalistic deception can be divided into four groups in accordance with acts of commission and omission in two areas of news gathering and news reporting. Among the four types of deception in journalism, I contend that deceptive news reporting by omission is rooted directly in organizational behavior, and it can result in the most serious harm to the public. While three other types of deception are undertaken for the purpose of more convenient access to news sources and journalists’ obligation or their own personal greed such as scoop and promotion, the benefits of deception in news reporting by omission appear to accrue to the organization that hires the journalists rather than to individual journalists who commit the deception. Media companies seek to maximize profits through catering to their partisan audiences by suppressing certain information that is not palatable to their readers/viewers. Selectively omitted information is particularly harmful to society because it can lead to conditions that motivate readers/viewers to initiate or to strengthen biased perspectives disseminated by the media organization that may run counter to the best interests of the audiences. In addition, audiences may be rational and make sense of bias in the media where all the facts are given, but it is virtually impossible for them to fully recover information that is selectively omitted in order to achieve information aggregation.
To Post or Not to Post: Ethical Considerations in Using Gun Permit Data Online • David Craig, University of Oklahoma; Stan Ketterer, Oklahoma State University; Mohammad Yousuf, University of Oklahoma • This study investigates the ethical dimensions of data journalism by examining journalists’ discussion of a controversy over publication of gun permit data. Three discussion threads in the listerv of the National Institute of Computer-Assisted Reporting were analyzed. Frames were freedom versus responsibility, consequences, privacy and verification, and alternatives. The findings highlight the benefits of pooling the practical wisdom of participants in an evolving practice. They also suggest recommendations for evaluating the ethics of data journalism.
“I dunno about Morals, but I do got rules”: Analyzing the moral evaluations of prisoners, law-enforcement agents and civilians of The Sopranos. • Merel van Ommen; Serena Daalmans, Radboud University Nijmegen; Addy Weijers; Rebecca de Leeuw • The current study is based on qualitative interviews (N = 60), that aimed to provide insight in the grounds of moral evaluations of an existential crime drama with morally ambivalent characters by different moral subcultures (i.e. prisoners, law enforcement agents, and civilians). The results reveal that prisoners and law enforcement agents ground their moral evaluations in their personal and professional opinions, while civilians showcase more nuance and reveal a difference between those who were and were not familiar with the show.
‘His Women Problem’: An analysis of gender on The Newsroom • Chad Painter, Eastern New Mexico University; Patrick Ferrucci, Bradley University • This textual analysis focused on the portrayal of female journalists on Aaron Sorkin’s The Newsroom. The researchers argue that the four main female journalists were depicted as being unprofessional in the workplace, being inadequate at their jobs, and being motherly and weak. The researchers conclude that Sorkin and his creative team failed in their ethical obligation to the audience and society because the portrayals could negatively impact the perceptions of real female journalists.
Search Engines and Online Censorship in China: An Ethics Approach • Tao Fu; William Babcock • This paper examines how two search engines in China – Google.com.hk and Baidu.com – are different and attract different audiences, but still are able to fit John Stewart Mill’s utilitarian model. Great use is made of both search engines, and the Chinese government in particular monitors – and censors – one, while the other is generally free of such intervention.
Gratification in journalism practice: An assessment of Kuwaiti journalists’ perspective • Uche Onyebadi, Southern Illinois University Carbondale; Fawaz Alajmi, Southern Illinois University Carbondale • Media ethics generally recommends journalists avoiding gratification in order to maintain objectivity and professional integrity. This study investigated the application of this ethical injunction in Kuwait. It surveyed and interviewed Kuwaiti journalists on their attitude towards gratification. Results indicate a breach of this ethical recommendation. Reasons for this include lack of media ethics education among journalists and the absence of ethical guidance by media owners. In addition, journalism in Kuwait is largely a part-time job.
Media Exemplars and a Model of the Morally Motivated Self • Patrick Plaisance, Colorado State University • Research on journalists and public relations executives known for their ethical leadership has demonstrated a clear moral psychology “profile” of personality traits, moral reasoning abilities and rejection of relativistic thinking. Drawing from this profile, a model of the “morally motivated self” is proposed here to map moral functioning as a way to advance media ethics theorizing. The proposed model comports well with the neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics focus on human flourishing, in contrast with deontological approaches.
The Relationship between Organizational Leaders and Advertising Ethics: An Organizational Ethnography • Erin Schauster, Bradley University • Understanding the complexity of advertising ethics mandates an organizational approach to empirical research. This ethnography examines the relationship between aspects of organizational leadership and advertising ethics through the lens of structuration theory. Forty-five days of fieldwork at a full-service advertising agency and 45 one-on-one interviews gathered perceptions of organizational leadership and ethical problems in advertising. Findings suggest that characteristics of leadership enable ethical awareness, while amoral intentions for starting the agency simultaneously constrain awareness.
Let’s Agree to Disagree: Advertising Ethics and the Consensus View • Erin Schauster, Bradley University • Organizational culture provides a context-specific look into advertising ethics. Through the lens of organizational culture, as both shared and divided, a full-service advertising agency was observed. Forty-five days of fieldwork and 45 one-on-one interviews were conducted to examine the shared perceptions and divided views of ethical problems in advertising. Findings suggest that members’ ethical perceptions fell along a continuum from moral myopia to acute ethical awareness, which supports a divided view of organizational culture.
Out of Bounds: Professional Norms as Boundary Markers • Jane Singer, City University London / University of Iowa • Journalists use norms not only as identity markers of the professional news worker but also as boundary markers between professionals and non-professionals. The distinctions they draw rest on ethical practices such as verification, principles such as independence, and promises such as accountability. After outlining responses to previous “new” media, two still-evolving journalistic forms – social journalism and entrepreneurial journalism – are explored to illustrate how this boundary marking is being enacted today.
The Traditional “Pickup” or “Death Knock” Story: Its Role, Its Value(s) and What’s at Stake for Communities • romayne smith fullerton, university of western ontario; Margaret Patterson, Duquesne University • The Canadian term, ‘pickup,’ or the British version, called ‘the death knock,’ refers to an assignment that strikes terror into the heart of young reporters or would-be journalists. It refers to the practice of sending a journalist to the home of someone who has died in a newsworthy event to ‘pick up’ a photograph of the deceased person, and to garner an interview with a family member to write a tribute story. Working from insights provided through personal interviews or group discussions with journalists and situating these ideas in the larger field of ethics literature, we argue that this often-maligned practice of the pickup plays a key part in journalism’s community function, pulling against the tide of social division. Done correctly, this narrative serves to bind the community in its common humanity. Done carelessly, it can work to expel wrongdoers and non-conformists in a manner that ill serves the democratic process. Its examination, therefore, should hinge not on whether the pickup should be done but how. Sadly the debate may cease to exist because the practice itself is threatened; newsrooms are under growing financial pressure to do more with less. Technology, specifically social media, is being increasingly relied upon to fill the gap.
Crisis Management and Ethics: Moving Beyond the Public-Relations-Person-as-Corporate-Conscience Construct toward Moral Agency • Burton St. John, Old Dominion University; Yvette Pearson, Old Dominion University • When it comes to ethics, public relations scholars have tended to describe the role of the public relations person as the “corporate conscience” of the organization. This paper, however, maintains that such a construct is problematic. Through an examination of two recent crisis case studies, this work offers observations on how the public relations person can reconceptualize the “corporate conscience” construct and focus on the value of promoting the development of moral reasoning skills alongside the acknowledgment of individuals’ fundamental role as moral agents.
“Just Doing His Job”: The James Rosen Warrant and the Ethical Implications of Journalists Circling the Wagons • Bastiaan Vanacker • When James Rosen in June 2009 published a story on Foxnews.com on North Korea and its nuclear program, he potentially jeopardized a valuable intelligence operation. However, his actions did not cause uproar among his colleagues. The consequent leak investigation by the government, however, did. This paper argues that by refusing to engage in a public debate about the ethics of using leaked information and using these types of cases instead to solidify its professional status, the journalistic profession lacks accountability.
Special Call For Sports Media Ethics
The Usage and Consequence of Twitter as a Communication Medium Among Collegiate Student-Athletes • Jacob Dryer; Rocky Dailey • The purpose of this study was to better understand the challenges associated with the social networking site (SNS) Twitter for collegiate student-athletes. Collegiate athletes at South Dakota State University (SDSU) and Central College were surveyed on their Twitter usage, understanding of student-athlete policies regarding SNSs, and their experience with the consequences of a negative Twitter posting. The vast majority of student athletes in this study did not have a Twitter account, and 45% of those with accounts posted daily updates. Only eight percent of respondents indicated getting into trouble for a post, and of those the majority of student-athletes did not feel the punishment was fair. A slight majority of students were unaware of any SNS policy for student athletes at their institution. The results of this study indicate that while student athletes tend to post less on the SNS Twitter than typical college students, there is a need for institutions to create policies regarding SNS posting for student athletes and make certain that those policies are communicated effectively to the students.
Dehumanizing Injured Athletes: The ethics of framing player injuries in fantasy football reporting • Brett Johnson, University of Minnesota • This paper conducts an empirical, a priori framing analysis of coverage of NFL player injuries in the fantasy football news service Rotowire during the 2013 NFL season. Following a literature review that involves framing theory and theories from sports media studies and Kant’s categorical imperative, frames are constructed a priori based on their ethical nature. Ethical frames treat injured players as ends in themselves. Unethical frames cover injuries in terms of their impact on players’ performance in fantasy football. Dual frames contain elements of both ethical and unethical frames. Neutral frames contain neither element. Statistical tests (Chi-squared, paired-sample t-tests and bivariate regression) test hypotheses regarding potential correlations between the ethical level of frames and key categorical (position, severity of injury, week of injury, whether or not the injury was a concussion) and quantitative (average fantasy points scored per week) independent variables. The paper concludes with a discussion on recommendations for how fantasy sports news services like Rotowire should ethically report on player injuries.
Mass Communication and Society 2014 Abstracts
Moeller Student Competition
They Don’t Believe What They See: Effects of Crisis Information Form, Source, and Visuals • Julia Daisy Fraustino, University of Maryland • This work reports results of a 2x3x2 between-subjects experiment (N = 590). Using the social-mediated crisis communication model as a theoretical lens, it tested the effects of crisis information source (news media: USA Today vs. organization: University), crisis information form (social media: Twitter vs. social media: Facebook vs. traditional media: website post), and crisis visual (crisis photo vs. no crisis photo) on students’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to a campus riot and shooting crisis.
“Our program is truth and justice” • Christopher Frear, University of South Carolina; Katherine LaPrad, University of South Carolina School of Journalism and Mass Communications • This study analyzes news framing of racial inequality and discrimination in a Deep South city in the mid-1970s as enduring issues of education, political power, employment, police conduct, and others were covered and contested. A content analysis of two newspapers — the state’s largest daily newspaper and a monthly/weekly black newspaper — shows socially and statistically significant differences in how the newspapers framed events. Researchers use collective action framing theory to interpret the results.
An Analysis of News Framing Obamacare Controversy during and after 2013 Government Shutdown • Juan Liu, Wayne State University • This study examines how elite media using official vs. unofficial voices framed Obamacare during and after 2013 government shutdown, and results reveal official voices predominate over unofficial voices in three of elite media except for NYT. Findings also indicate both official and unofficial voices are thematic-orientated frames, which attribute Obamacare controversy to two major political parties. There is consistency and differences among elite media in framing the varying degrees of both official and unofficial voices.
Open Competition
Media Preferences and Political Knowledge in the 2012 Pre-Primary Period • Mariam Alkazemi, University of Florida; Wayne Wanta, University of Florida • Political knowledge during the pre-primary period in the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign was examined for users of social, online and traditional media. Analysis of survey data collected by the Pew Center showed large differences between viewers of different network newscasts and online media but few differences for other traditional media and social media users. Fox News viewers, both online and through cable, scored highest, perhaps because the knowledge questions involved Republican candidates. Finally, the more online media used, the higher the knowledge level.
Reducing Stigmatization Associated with Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency • Michelle Baker, Penn State University • Differences in response to three written narratives designed to reduce stigmatization associated with the genetic condition alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) were examined. Three protagonists were depicted: positive, transitional, and transformational. Positive protagonists, who did not stigmatize a person diagnosed with AATD, showed greater stigmatization reduction than transitional and transformational protagonists. Positive protagonists showed reduced advocacy for individuals to maintain secrecy about their diagnosis or withdraw from others and increased advocacy to educate others about AATD.
Exploring the Role of Sensation Seeking, Need for Cognition, and Political Extremity on Use of Online News Forums • Toby Hopp; Benjamin Birkinbine, University of Oregon • This study used a sample of 1,075 online newsreaders to explore the relationship between need for cognition, sensation seeking, and political extremity on use of online news comment forums. The results indicated that political extremity moderated the relationship between sensation seeking and the creation of online news comments. The analysis also found that need for cognition and sensation seeking were positively associated with reading news comments.
Is Reality TV a Bad Girls Club? A Content Analysis and Survey of Gendered Aggression • Erica Scharrer, University of Massachusetts; Greg Blackburn, University of Massachusetts • A content analysis of aggression present in reality television programs featuring adults in romantic, friendship-oriented, or familial settings was performed. Results show modest differences among male and female characters in their perpetration of physical, verbal, and social aggression. A survey of 248 U.S. adults indicated correlations between exposure to this subgenre of reality-based programs and physical, verbal and social aggression measures, moderated by gender and the perceived reality of reality television.
Online Communities: What do we know? • Porismita Borah; Jared Brickman • Research about the varied facets of online life is exploding in communication research. The question of how people communicate has migrated to a new platform, and the research community is simply trying to keep up, with everything from Tweets to Vines to social networking. A reflection at what has been done so far would be fundamental to help shape the future research agenda for online communities research. The present study conducted a content analysis of the published literature from 66 communication journals. Primary findings show lack of theoretical arguments, and lack of probability sampling. Findings also show higher empirical methodologies and the use of general population as the population of interest. Implications are discussed.
Sharing means everything: Friend group perceptions and parenting behaviors on Facebook • Bob Britten, West Virginia University; Jessica Troilo • Individuals draw resources from their networks of institutionalized relationships, a concept known as social capital. At the moment, Facebook is currently the world’s most popular social network, but it is not certain whether or not users consider it a valid source for parenting advice. Social interaction is a main predictor of online use, but research has been mixed as to whether online interactions can harm or bolster one’s social capital. This research project investigated how parents who are Facebook users engaged in a series of online behaviors concerning parenting (sharing information about children, seeking and providing parenting advice, feeling satisfied with the advice received, and feeling understood by one’s Facebook friends) and whether or not these behaviors were associated with perceived congruence with Facebook friends’ values.
Trayvon Martin Social Media Messaging: An Analysis of Framing and Media Types in Online Messages by Civil Rights Organizations • Riva Brown, University of Central Arkansas • This content analysis explored framing and media types used by the NAACP, National Urban League, National Action Network, and ColorOfChange.org in social media during the Trayvon Martin case. After George Zimmerman fatally shot Martin and was not charged with murder, these organizations drafted petitions and staged rallies. Chi-square and likelihood ratio results showed some significant differences in frames. Overall, the results suggested that the organizations could have done more to use multimedia and encourage activism.
Mobility and the news: Examining the influences of news use patterns and generational differences on mobile news use • Michael Chan, Chinese University of Hong Kong • This study examines the relationships among mobile news use and use of other mediums for accessing the news. Findings from a representative sample found that people are multiplatform users of news, yet subgroup analyses reveal clear differences. Mobile news was negatively related to television use for the 18-34 cohort and to newspaper use for the 35-54 cohort. Results also showed that different gratifications predict mobile hard news and mobile soft news use.
Look Who is Talking—and Selling and Steering the Housing Market Policy • Kuang-Kuo Chang, Department of Journalism, Shih Hsin University, Taiwan • The present study content analyzes how Taiwan’s four major newspapers use news sources, notably real estate personnel and construction industry who, in turn, frame the policy. This research is important because it substantiates both theoretical and pragmatic evidence to the existing scarce literature on sourcing patterns in business reporting and its interactive influences on public policy. It carries implications for all stakeholders, particularly news media in terms of its watch-dog roles for a true democracy.
Adolescents and Cyber Bullying: The Precaution Adoption Process Model • John Chapin, Pennsylvania State University • A survey of adolescents (N = 1,488) documented Facebook use and experience with cyber bullying. The study found that 84% of adolescents (middle school through college undergraduates) use Facebook, and that most users log on daily. While 30% of the sample reported being cyber bullied, only 12.5% quit using the site, and only 18% told a parent or school official about the abuse. Up to 75% of middle school Facebook users have experienced cyber bullying. The current study was the first to apply the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) to cyber bullying or to test the model with children and adolescents. Results suggest that most adolescents are aware of cyber bullying and acknowledge it as a problem in their school. About half of the adolescents did not progress beyond Stage 2 of the PAPM (aware of the problem, but haven’t really thought about it). Adolescents also exhibited optimistic bias, believing they were less likely than peers to become cyber bullied. Implications for prevention education are discussed.
Crisis communication strategies at social media and publics’ cognitive and affective responses: A case of Foster Farms salmonella outbreak • Surin Chung, University of Missouri-Columbia; Suman Lee, Iowa State University • This study examined an organization’s crisis communication strategies (crisis response strategy and technical translation strategy) at social media and publics’ cognitive and affective responses. Twenty crisis communication messages from the Foster Farms regarding Salmonella outbreak and 349 public responses were analyzed. The results showed that technical translation strategy generated more acceptances of message and positive emotion than crisis response strategy. Crisis response strategy generated more rejections of message and negative emotion than technical translation strategy.
Being a bad, bad man: An experimental study exploring the power of the story on the moral evaluation of immoral characters • Serena Daalmans, Radboud University Nijmegen; Merel van Ommen; Addy Weijers; Michelle van Pinxteren; Rebecca de Leeuw • Research in the affective disposition theory tradition posits that the nature of characters, their intentions and behavioral outcomes influence the perceived realism, transportation, liking (affective dispositions), identification, character perception, perceived character morality and enjoyment. In this study the possibility that the moral nature of the narrative (i.e. ambiguous or closed) influences these ADT-related variables is explored. The study’s main hypothesis is that the morally open condition of a storyline from the existential drama The Sopranos will generate more diverse answers (higher differences in standard deviation), than the morally closed version of the similar storyline, on variables commonly used in ADT-guided research such as character liking, perceived character morality enjoyment and moral evaluation. We conducted an experiment with two types of stories: one with a clear-cut moral closure in the narrative and one in which the last scene is morally ambivalent and offers less moral guidance to the viewers. Using the same storyline from The Sopranos (S03E05, the episode in which Tony gets ticketed for speeding) we created the experimental stimulus by changing the order of the last two scenes. In the open condition, Tony Soprano feels guilt over the immoral actions he has taken, while in the closed version he feels firmly validated in the immoral things he has done. Our results signal the possibility that different prototypical schemas are at play when it comes to the moral evaluation of a morally bad protagonist in contrast with morally good and ambivalent characters.
Family Communication Patterns and Problematic Media Use • John Davies, Brigham Young University; Steven Holiday, Brigham Young University; Sean Foster, Brigham Young University; Levi Heperi, Brigham Young University • This study contends that problematic media use is related to family communication patterns. Thirty-five families with 2 to 5 members each (N = 117) completed measures of their family communication patterns and provided information on their media habits. Conformity orientation was positively associated with unregulated television use and beliefs about the mood-managing properties of the medium. Conversation orientation was negatively linked with beliefs about the mood-managing properties of computer / video games.
Media Choice as a Function of Prior Affect: An Attempt to Separate Mood from Emotion • Francesca Dillman Carpentier, University of North Carolina; Ryan Rogers; Elise Stevens • Media choices were compared in three studies, observed choices of video games, music, and movie trailers. Participants were placed into one of eight affect conditions using a text introduction + video induction. Four conditions produced states representing emotional responses: elation, contentment, anger, sadness. These conditions featured vignettes and videos describing a situation in which the intended affect was attributed to a specific cause. The remaining conditions produced states representing moods: high-arousal positive, low-arousal positive, high-arousal negative, low-arousal negative. The mood conditions offered no attribution for intended affect. Results indicated few discernible patterns of media choices based on whether a person is experiencing a positive or negative emotion vs. mood. Differences in choices were only pronounced when the experienced affect was of low arousal and not attributable to a specific cause. These differences were seen for music and movie trailers, but not for video games.
The Compatibility of Psychological Needs & Talk Show Host Style • Stephanie Edgerly, Northwestern University; Melissa R. Gotlieb, Texas Tech University; Emily Vraga, George Mason University • This study uses an experiment to test the argument that effects of news talk shows are influenced by the compatibility of hosting style (e.g., promoting critical thought vs. humor) and audience needs (e.g., the need for cognition, need for humor). Results indicate strong support for this compatibility argument. When compatibility between host style and audience needs existed, subjects perceived the talk show to be more relevant, which in turn increased cognitive and behavioral involvement.
Covering the Colbert Super PAC Initiative — an Exploration of Journalist Perspectives on a Late Night Satirist‘s Entry into Politics • Nathan Gilkerson, Marquette University • Late night humor and satire is playing an increasingly significant role within our culture and political landscape. Recently comedian Stephen Colbert went beyond the role satirists have traditionally played in skewering and making fun of politics; in forming the Colbert Super PAC, Colbert became a prominent participant and activist within the political process itself. This research examines the perceptions and understanding of Colbert’s form of “participatory satire” among those within the journalism community.
Effect of verbally aggressive television programming on verbal aggression • Jack Glascock • This study examined the effect of verbally aggressive media on self-reported verbal aggression. Using a theoretical framework provided by social cognitive and priming theories, participants were randomly assigned to watch either a verbally aggressive television show or a neutral show. Participants self-reported verbal aggression was assessed both several weeks before exposure and then again immediately after exposure. A between-subjects analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) indicated males’ verbal aggression increased after exposure to the verbally aggressive media in which the main protagonist was male. Results are discussed within the framework of social cognitive theory and identification with same-sex models.
News Content Engagement or News Medium Engagement? A Longitudinal Analysis of News Consumption Since the Rise of Social and Mobile Media 2009-2012 • Louisa Ha, Bowling Green State University; Ying Xu, Bowling Green State University; Chen Yang; Fang Wang, Bowling Green State University, Ohio; Liu Yang; WEIWEI JIANG; Mohammad Abuljadail, Bowling Green State University, Ohio; Xiao Hu, Bowling Green State University; Itay Gabay, Bowling Green State University • This study proposes four levels of news engagement and reports results of a four-year tracking of the general population and the college student population a mid-size Midwest U.S. market to compare how social media and mobile media differed in their effect on consumption time and the number of news media platforms use between the two groups. The analysis shows a steady decline in interest in political news in both general population and students, but total news consumption time remained the same among the general population only. Predictors differ at different levels of news engagement.
Facebook as a Brand-Consumer Relationship Tool: The Effect of Socialness in Brand Communication and Brand Image • Jin Hammick, Flagler College • This study extends commitment-trust theory and social response theory to Facebook fan page environments. Using 2×2 posttest only group design, this study manipulated socialness in brand communication and the brand image. The results suggest that socialness in brand communication differently affects customers’ perception on brand trustworthiness, relationship commitment and brand attitude depending on the brand image. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed to explore the potential of Facebook as an effective consumer relationship channel.
Navigating between Market-Forces and the Public-Service Ideal: Swiss Journalists’ Perception of their Journalistic Role • Lea Hellmueller; Guido Keel • Globalization has increased the amount of soft news and entertainment content in various media systems of the world. Yet Northern European countries with strong public broadcasters are more resistant toward those change. Our representative study of Swiss journalists (N = 2509) reveals that three forces pull journalists toward the market side: if journalists work for private news organization, if journalists cover mostly lifestyle topics, and if journalists belong to the digital native generation.
Connecting With Celebrities On Twitter And Facebook: A Narrative Processing Approach • Parul Jain, Ohio University; Amanda J. Weed; Pamela Walck, E.W. Scripps School of Journalism, Ohio University • Using survey methodology and narrative processing approach this study examined the motivations behind connecting with entertainment shows, the characters on these shows, and the actors that play these characters, via two main social networking sites: Facebook and Twitter. As predicted by uses and gratification theory, the results suggest that levels of transportation predict likelihood of connecting with the show on SN platforms. The levels of identification and parasocial interaction experienced during viewing predict the likelihood of following the character and the actor that played that role. Source evaluation of the character mediated the relationship between social attraction and parasocial interaction. Theoretically, this research extends uses and gratification and narrative processing in the area of social networking research. Further theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Do Social Media Amplify Public Attention? Rethinking Agenda Setting with Social Big Data • S. Mo Jang, University of South Carolina; Josh Pasek, University of Michigan • This research reconsiders agenda setting research by examining the key assumption that the carrying capacity of mass mediated news is limited. We investigate the relevance of this premise in a digital era where the production and broadcasting capacity of mass media has been significantly amplified. Evidence from the full stream of Twitter data indicates that the total amount of user-generated information may vary in line with real-world events. These findings challenge the fundamental assumption of agenda setting theory.
The Power of the Cover: Symbolic Contests Around the Boston Bombing Suspect’s Rolling Stone Cover • Joy Jenkins, University of Missouri; Edson Tandoc, Nanyang Technological University • Rolling Stone ignited a debate in July 2013 when it published a cover featuring alleged Boston Marathon bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. The online version of the cover story drew commenters expressing criticism and support of the cover. A qualitative analysis of 7,871 comments posted within the first week of the cover story shed light on the image’s institutional meaning for Rolling Stone and community meaning for readers, ultimately revealing how magazine covers serve as cultural artifacts.
A fatal attraction: The effect of TV viewing on smoking initiation in young women • Erika Johnson, University of Missouri; KYUNG JUNG HAN, University of Missouri; Maria Len-Rios, U. of Missouri • This study seeks to establish a connection between TV viewing and smoking intentions and low smoking refusal ability in young adult women, 18-24 (N = 156). Using cultivation and social learning theories as a guide, the researchers found that TV viewing and smoking intentions are correlated and that TV viewing and ability to refuse smoking were negatively correlated. This suggests that TV viewing is positively associated with smoking intentions and inability to overcome peer pressure.
Health Reporting and Public Attitudes towards Media and Government Accountability in Five West African Countries • Stephanie Smith, Ohio University; Yusuf Kalyango, Ohio University; Kingsley Antwi-Boasiako, Ohio University • This study examines how citizens of Benin, Cape Verde, Ghana, Liberia, and Sierra Leone view their relationship with the government and media performance in terms of the reporting on government’s handling of public health services, using the Afrobarometer data. Results show that going without health related necessities significantly predicted how well/badly one perceives the government’s handling of health related issues and also significantly predicted perceptions of the effectiveness of the news media in revealing corruption. Findings also indicated that among the respondents in the five West African countries of Ghana, Sierra Leone, Benin, Cape Verde and Liberia only a small proportion of them held the opinion that government was handling the job of combating HIV/AIDS. On improvement of basic health services and ensuring everyone has enough to eat, very few respondents stated that their governments were handling this “very badly.” The significance of these results are discussed in detail.
Attribute Agenda Setting, Attribute Priming, and the Public’s Evaluation of Genetically Modified (GM) Food in South Korea • Soo Yun Kim, University of Wisconsin-Madison; Sei-Hill Kim • The primary purpose of this study was to explore attribute agenda setting and priming effects in South Korea. In order to demonstrate the role of the media in shaping people’s perceptions of Genetically Modified (GM) foods, I first examined the attributes of GM food that have appeared more often than others in Korean news media (attribute agenda setting). Then, I linked the results of the content analysis to survey data and explored whether certain attributes emphasized in the media became salient in people’s minds (attribute priming). Findings support the transmission of issue salience from the media to the public. First, more salient attributes in the news media were more likely to influence people’s evaluation of GM food. Second, the media – public correspondence between the media’s agenda and the public’s agenda of GM food was significantly greater among high media users, especially among high television viewers. With these findings about the attribute agenda setting and attribute priming, Korean news media seem to make certain attributes of an issue more or less salient in people’s minds.
Skepticism, Partisan Post-Debate News Use, and Polarization: Examining a Moderated Mediation Model of Debate Attention and Partisan News Use on Polarized Attitudes • Sungsu Kim, University of Arizona; Jay Hmielowski; Myiah Hutchens; Michael Beam, Kent State University • This study attempts to understand the conditions in which skepticism leads to polarized political attitudes. To examine our communication process model, we analyzed data collected during the 2012 presidential election. Our model examined the indirect effects of skepticism on polarization through our mediating variable of attention to presidential debates. We also examined whether these indirect effects varied by attention to partisan post-debate news. Our results showed contributory effects where partisan post-debate news increased the relationship between debate viewing and polarization. These indirect effects were present only at moderate and high levels of attention to post-debate coverage.
Did Apollo astronauts land on the moon? The cause and consequence of belief in conspiracy theories • Minchul Kim, Indiana University; Xiaoxia Cao, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee • A two-stage randomized experiment found that exposure to a video promoting the moon landing conspiracy increased belief in the conspiracy. The immediate increase in the belief persisted two weeks after the exposure, and translated into higher levels of distrust in the government. The findings shed light on not only the important role played by media in cultivating belief in conspiracy theories but also the political ramifications of exposure to media messages that promote the theories.
Not Living up to Our Ideals: Value-Trait Consistency in News Exposure and Democratic Citizenship • Dam Hee Kim, University of Michigan; Josh Pasek, University of Michigan • Although scholars consider it important for people to seek diverse information, it appears that many people are only exposing themselves to information they already agree with. This study explores a disconnect between ideals and practices to identify 1) whether citizens hold the same ideals as scholars; 2) whether individuals who hold diversity-seeking ideals live up to the ideals; and 3) whether diversity-seeking ideals and practices are emblematic with good democratic citizenship.
The effect of e-health literacy and readability of online magazine articles on sexual health knowledge and condom use intentions among 18- to 24-year-old women • Maria Len-Rios, U. of Missouri; KYUNG JUNG HAN, University of Missouri; Erika Johnson, University of Missouri • This is a mixed experimental study using a 2(article readability: 6th grade vs. 12th grade) x 2(health topic: sexually transmitted infections vs. unintended pregnancy) x e-health literacy level design. We investigate the effect of e-health literacy and magazine article readability on sexual health knowledge gain and condom use intentions among females (N=213). Participants with higher e-health literacy scores gained more STI knowledge from reading the articles than did those with lower scores.
The Effects of Antismoking Ads on Long-Term Smokers’ Maladaptive Responses and Cessation Intent • Jungsuk Kang; Carolyn Lin • This study examined how message framing and visual-fear appeals in antismoking ads influenced maladaptive responses and cessation intent among Korean males smokers. For smokers who attempted cessation in the previous 12 month, ad exposure increased their fatalism and hopelessness; their wishful thinking was stronger in the gain-frame/no visual-fear condition. For smokers who did not attempt cessation, ad exposure increased their cessation intention; visual fear-appeal generated a greater level of denial, wishful thinking and hopelessness.
Psychological Distance, General Self-efficacy, and Third-person Perception Abstract • xudong liu, Macau University of Science and Technology • The study incorporated the construal level theory to investigate how psychological distance influence people’s judgment of media content’s impact on self and others. A survey study demonstrates that when people perceived the event covered by the news stores were likely to occur locally, or viewed as psychologically nearing the viewer, perceived impact on self increases and third person perception decreases. The study also found that self-efficacy and general-efficacy counteract negative information and positively influence third person perception.
Ecological and field-level predictors of media decision-making: The case of hyperlocal news • Wilson Lowrey; Eunyoung Kim, University of Alabama • This study examines the influence of population dynamics, a concept from organization ecology research, against traditional predictors from gatekeeping and media sociology research, using the case example of the hyperlocal news website. Traditional “field-level” predictors from media sociology, and population-level predictors from organizational ecology are used to predict frequency and favorability of coverage of local businesses and government organizations. Population-level predictors corresponded significantly with frequency of coverage. However, the professional background of journalists and connection with traditional media organizations were more important in predicting favorability of coverage. Results suggest relevance of population-level factors, which have been mostly missing in previous media sociology and gatekeeping studies.
A Look of Horror: Perceptions of Frightening Content Based on Character Expression • Teresa Lynch, Indiana University; Andrew J. Weaver • Two-hundred-seven individuals participated in a 2 (Race) x 2 (Sex) x 2 (Expression) x 4 (Title) experiment examining perceptions of fright in horror video games and selective exposure. Results indicate that character expression is a meaningful cue of a video game’s horror content. We examined identification with a character on perceptions of horror. We discuss results for selective exposure in the context of social identity theory and implications of monadic vs. observation-based identification with characters.
Impact of English Social Media on Acculturation to America: A Study of Hong Kong Youth • YANNI MA, Hong Kong Baptist University; Cong Li, University of Miami; Ying Du, Hong Kong Baptist University • With the popularization of digital gadgets among youth all over the world, social media plays an important role in redefining communication and community. In the process of acculturation, social media also has great potential to influence immigrants or sojourners. In this study, we conduct a survey to test whether acculturation to America among people outside of the U.S. in Asia, i.e., in Hong Kong, is affected by social media use. A positive correlation is found between consumption of English social media and assimilation and integration, which means that English social media could facilitate the process of acculturation to America among the youth of Hong Kong.
Mobile Media and Democracy: Skill and Political News as Predictors of Participation • Jason Martin, DePaul University • This study explores the emerging role of mobile news in democracy by examining to what extent differential patterns of mobile political news use are based on demographics, socioeconomic indicators, and mobile media skill, and, in turn, how those differences influence political participatory outcomes. A nationally representative random-sample survey (n=2,250) was analyzed to better explain who mobile election news users are, how they compare to non-users, the importance of mobile media skill as a predictor of mobile news use, and the consequences of mobile political news use in the democratic process during the November 2010 general election. Findings extend research on the complicated intersection of demographics, cognitive attributes, and social factors that predict who uses the Internet for political purposes and the benefits they derive from that use by producing results specific to mobile media. Mobile political news use was associated with greater likelihood of electoral participation for some traditionally underprivileged segments of society, especially when analysis focuses on determinants of mobile political news use and the potential importance of mobile news as a political resource for racial minorities. However, while mobile news use clearly held an important role in the election and has the potential to reach atypical political news consumers, analysis also highlights the conditionality of that influence by demonstrating how socioeconomically privileged respondents were more likely to be mobile political news users and how mobile media skill, a variable that could potentially mitigate some of the effects of demographic advantage, was limited as a predictor of political participation.
Are we reading the same crisis news? A comparative framing and message strategy analysis of crisis news coverage within different cultural dimensions • Andrea Miller, Louisiana State University; Young Kim, Louisiana State University; myounggi chon • This study explores cultural differences in crisis communication by analyzing and comparing the cross-national framing and crisis messages for the 2013 Asiana Airlines crash, disseminated by South Korean and American news agencies. Using Hofstede’s (1980) five dimensions of culture, a total of 256 news stories (Korean: 133 and American: 123) were analyzed to examine which news sources, news framing, level of responsibility, and crisis message strategies were used by media within different cultures.
Peering Over the Ideological Wall: Examining Priming Effects Among Political Partisans • David Morin, Utah Valley University; Gi Woong Yun, Bowling Green State University • Contemporary political priming research attempts to discover the underlying variables that may strengthen or weaken priming effects. In keeping in line with that reasoning, this study examined how political ideology influences priming outcomes along a diverse set of evaluative criteria, among political partisan individuals. The findings suggest that political primes may be able to affect political partisans only if the prime is directly related to the evaluative line.
Bull’s-eye: Examining the Influence of Parental Mediation, Empathy and Media Usage in the Cyberbullying of Teens • Cynthia Nichols, Oklahoma State University; Krysta Gilbert • Certain characteristics have emerged in cyberbullying research as indicators of bullies—lack of empathy toward cyberbullying, lack of parental mediation, and high social media use. The following paper looks to explore the relationships between these variables. Data indicated that teens with lower levels of empathy toward cyberbullying had lower levels of parental mediation, admitted to cyberbullying others, have higher social media usage, and had a high level of addiction to social media.
Who’s the Bully?: Teaching About Bullies in Situation Comedies • Patrice Oppliger; Chelsea Summers, University of Colorado • Bullying is a significant problem for adolescents in the United States; however, few if any anti-bullying programs address the influence of media on aggression. Studies show the media is a pervasive source of information for adolescents, particularly in regard to violence and aggressive behavior among and between boys and girls. The following content analysis investigates how adolescent bullying is represented in situation comedies. The portrayals of bullying differed significantly by gender, race, target audience, and decade of broadcast. Result showed no link between the strategy the victims adopted (e.g., standing up to the bully, telling an adult) and the outcome of the situation.
Do perceptions matter in pornography effects? Examining how use and perceived general acceptance and influence of pornography may impact agreement with sex-role attitudes • Rebecca Ortiz, Texas Tech University; Shawna White, Texas Tech University; Eric Rasmussen, Texas Tech University • The present study was conducted to examine how perceived acceptance and influence of pornography use may play a role in the relationship between pornography consumption and sex-role attitudes. Results revealed that pornography consumption was associated with perceived general acceptance and influence of pornography and agreement with less progressive sex roles. Believing that pornography can have positive effects on most people, however, was negatively associated with agreement with less progressive sex-role attitudes.
The Russian diva and the American golden girl in NBC’s 2012 Olympic Gymnastics Coverage • Kelly Poniatowski, Elizabethtown College • Gabby Douglas of the United States and Aliya Mustafina of Russia were two of the top gymnasts at the 2012 Olympics. This paper will use textual analysis to investigate how these two gymnasts were stereotypically portrayed in contrast to one another during NBC’s coverage of the 2012 Olympics. Findings suggest Mustafina was constructed as a diva for not following authority and listening to her coach. Douglas was constructed as hardworking and having made many sacrifices.
Emerging adults’ responses to active mediation of pornography during adolescence • Eric Rasmussen, Texas Tech University; Shawna White, Texas Tech University; Rebecca Ortiz, Texas Tech University • This study explored the predictors of negative active mediation of pornography, as well as the relation between negative active mediation of pornography received by adolescents and emerging adults’ pornography use, attitudes about pornography, and self-esteem of those who sexual partner regularly views pornography. The findings revealed that the negative relationship between active mediation of pornography and emerging adults’ pornography use was mediated by negative attitudes about pornography.
Environmental orientations and news coverage: Examining the impact of individual differences and narrative news • Fuyuan Shen, Penn State University; Lee Ahern, Penn State; Jiangxue (Ashley) Han, Penn State University • This paper examined the impact of narrative environmental news and the extent to which it might be moderated by individuals’ prior environmental orientations. To do that, we conducted an experiment whereby participants read either narrative or informational news reports on the environmental consequences of shale gas drilling. Individuals’ environmental orientations were measured a week before the experiment. Results indicated significant interaction effects between news formats and individuals’ environmental orientations on transportation, cognitive responses, empathy and issue attitudes. Those who were more concerned about the environment were more affected by narrative news than those less concerned. These findings suggest news narratives had stronger effects when they resonated with individuals’ predispositions.
Is “doing well” doing any good? How web analytics and social media are changing journalists’ perceptions of news quality • Edson Tandoc, Nanyang Technological University; Ryan Thomas, Missouri School of Journalism • This study examines how online journalists define a phrase commonly heard in online newsrooms: What does it mean if a story is “doing well?” Through qualitative analysis of survey responses from 210 online editors, this study found five general categories of definition: a) getting a lot of readership; b) getting high audience metrics; c) being shared on social media; d) being talked about by readers; or e) contributing to journalism’s social roles.
Using Social Media to Analyze Candidate Performance and Public Opinion During Political Debates • Mark Tremayne, University of Texas at Arlington; Milad Minooie, University of Texas at Arlington • A network analysis of Twitter discussion during the first presidential debate between President Obama and Mitt Romney was used to examine the process of public opinion formation as the debate was occurring. What user characteristics are associated with centrality in this kind of network? What mechanisms drive hub formation? Does sentiment move toward one candidate or the other as the debate progresses? The viability of social networks as a gauge of public opinion is discussed.
The ‘weaponization’ of media in the context of war, conflict and Security • Christian Vukasovich, Oregon Tech; Oliver Boyd-Barrett • This article takes a critical analysis of existing perspectives on the role of propaganda in news reporting during times of war and conflict. Emerging from this inquiry is the theory of a weaponization of media that moves beyond the scope of existing propaganda theories and explains to what end propaganda works as well as the ways in which the media system capacitates and enhances processes of propaganda.
The Dynamics of Cross-Cutting Exposure and Attitude Change: A Latent Growth Curve Analysis • Sungmin Kang, University of Wisconsin-Madison; Mike Wagner • Generally, research examining cross-cutting exposure has relied on cross-sectional data, which necessarily is confined to one point in time. The Latent Growth Curve analysis we employ here is specifically designed to estimate the dynamics of cross-cutting exposure over time. The major contribution we make here is the demonstration that the initial level of cross-cutting exposure reported by respondents before the South Korean election is a predictor for the rate of change in opinion modification.
Virality of news tweets and videos about the missing Malaysia Airlines flight: the effects of analytical vs. emotional content, modalities, and interface cues • Yi Wang, University of Connecticut; Jueman Zhang; Yue Wu; XIULI WANG; Ross Buck • This study examine the effects of analytical versus emotional content, modalities, and interface cues on intention to retweet news posts about the missing Malaysia Airlines flight on Weibo, the Chinese Twitter-like microblogging. News posts with analytical content were likely to be retweeted than news posts with information that led to sad emotions. The study also investigated how the weight and order of analytical and emotional content in a video affected attention, arousal, and intention to retweet the video. Videos with largely analytical content were more attention getting than videos with information that led to sad emotions. The former were less arousing than the latter.
Persuasion in 140 Characters: Testing Issue Framing, Persuasion and Credibility via Twitter and Online News Articles in the Gun Control Debate • ben wasike, University of Texas at Brownsville • Using a 2x2x4 experimental design, this study examined the framing of the pro and anti-gun control arguments posited after the Sandy Hook shooting and the resultant effect on persuasion and credibility. Overall, pro-gun control frames were more persuasive and more credible than anti-gun control frames. Arguments transmitted via online news articles elicited more persuasion than those transmitted via Twitter. Policy ramifications for the gun debate and overall implications for Twitter are discussed.
The Elections in 140 Characters: How Obama and Romney Used Twitter in the 2012 Presidential Race • ben wasike, University of Texas at Brownsville • This study used content analysis to examine how Obama and Romney used Twitter to mobilize their supporters, interact with them and frame other each via direct dialogue during the 2012 elections. Obama had more voter interaction and used Twitter more for mobilization. Overall, Twitter use mirrored that of other campaign tools in terms of mobilization and direct dialogue. This means that Twitter mostly conforms to the normalization thesis, whereby an anticipated revolution borne of new technology fails to change traditional communication patterns. The ramifications are discussed within.
Is mobile expanding political participation?: The digital divide and demographic patterns in telephone, web, and mobile-based requests for city services • Brendan Watson, University of Minnesota • This study analyzes demographic patterns in residents’ requests for non-emergency city services made by telephone, online, or via a mobile app, SeeClickFix. The study maps requests’ location and underlying neighborhood demographics, testing whether mobile reports alter political participation patterns. Digital divides suggest that online reports would be less likely in minority neighborhoods. Smartphone penetration, however, is highest among racial minorities. Thus, mobile government services could potentially increase political participation among these traditionally underrepresented demographics.
Mourning and grief on Facebook: An examination of motivations for interacting with the deceased • Erin Willis, University of Memphis; Patrick Ferrucci, Bradley University • Facebook has not only changed the way we communicate but the way we mourn and express grief. The social networking site allows users to interact with deceased users’ walls after death. This study used textual analysis to categorize Facebook posts (N=122) on 30 deceased users’ walls according to the uses and gratifications theory. Most posts were found to be motivated by entertainment followed by integration and social interaction. Facebook users posted memories, condolences, and interacted with friends and family members in the deceased user’s network. Implications and future research are discussed.
The American Journalist in the Digital Age: How Journalists and the Public Think About U.S. Journalism • Lars Willnat; David Weaver, Indiana University • This paper reports findings from a 2013 survey of 1,080 U.S. journalists and a 2014 survey of the 1,230 U.S. adults, focusing on their views of traditional journalism roles and the performance of U.S. journalism. The study finds significant differences in how journalists and the public evaluate news media performance and journalistic roles. It also finds that news consumption and social media use predict stronger support for traditional journalistic roles among journalists and citizens.
Chatting leads to political action? Modeling the relation among discussion motivations, political expression and participation • Pei Zheng, University of Texas at Austin; Fangjing Tu, University of Texas at Austin; Homero Gil de Zuniga, University of Vienna • This study examines (1) the influence of two motivations for discussing politics (civic and social) on political discussion and political expression, (2) the role of political discussion and expression on offline participation, and (3) the pathway from the two motivations to offline participation. Using two-wave national panel survey data, three well-fitted synchronous structural equation models, cross sectional, lagged panel and fixed effects models, are tested to guarantee solid findings. All models show that civic motivations for discussing politics directly link to discussion and offline participation, while social motivations instead encourage more political expression and through this path lead to discussion and participation offline. In other words, we found largely consistent patterns of relationships among these variables regardless of whether we examined associations among individual differences, intra-individual change, or net gains. Results imply that casual chatting would involve political elements which gradually drive individual to engage in political actions.
Student Competition
From Passive to Active: The Spectrum of Peace Journalism • Jesse Benn • The biggest hurdle facing the field of Peace Journalism (PJ) is its vague definition. This paper proposes defining PJ as it operates on a spectrum, from passive to active. Through a review of extant PJ literature, this paper synthesizes current theory into an overarching, explicit concept, and calls for it to be further adopted and expanded. To conclude it considers potential advantages, drawbacks, and critiques of its proposal.
Moral Foundations Theory and U.S. Newspaper Coverage of Mosque Controversies • Brian J. Bowe, Michigan State University • This study proposes improving the measurement of media frames by applying Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) to the operationalization of the moral evaluation frame dimension. Analyzing news articles (n=350) from five newspapers about controversies surrounding the construction of mosques in the U.S. A cluster analysis of moral foundations in this study found two clusters, both of which were strongly rooted in socially binding moral foundations. One was related to the foundation of subversion and the other related to loyalty. The framing implications of these two clusters are discussed.
Bringing back the past: New media and archived media content providers • Terry Britt, University of Texas at Austin • This qualitative study examines individuals who acquire, digitize, and upload archival media content (media originally produced before 1990) for public viewing on YouTube and, in some cases, their own websites. The study also looks at challenges to their efforts, primarily copyright issues and deteriorating or vanishing sources of content. These individuals often see themselves as unofficial media archivists or historians, attempting to make unknown or obscure content available to the public.
Internet and political participation in Georgia • Nino Danelia, University of South Carolina • The study founds that the Internet plays an important role in predicting youth political participation in Georgia, one of the former republics of the Soviet Union. Attention to online news media increases youth’s political knowledge that in turn, enhances their feeling of self-efficacy and ultimately, political participation. Involvement in online political discussions is among the strongest predictors of participatory behavior in a country with semi-democratic political system, partly free media environment and low penetration of Internet.
Intergroup Contact Through News Exposure and the Role of Group-based Emotions • Jiyoung Han, University of Minnesota • This study argues that news exposure substitutes physical or/and interpersonal contacts. I applied this idea to news reports on President Obama’s Trayvon Martin. Consistent with intergroup contact theory and social identity theory, I proposed that news frames (i.e., empathy-framed news and conflict-framed news) may infuse group-based emotions, such as empathy for blacks and anxiety toward blacks, into audiences’ mind and consequently have an impact on their support for President Obama’s Trayvon Martin speech. Two studies showed that people’s support for the speech varied as a function of news frames and group-based emotions played an important role in the given relationships. Interestingly two distinct racial groups (i.e., whites and non-black minorities) showed different responses to the news frames. Study 1 (N =136 white students) demonstrated that exposure to the empathy-framed news increased whites’ support for the speech, whereas exposure to the conflict-frames news reduced whites’ support for the speech. However, neither empathy for blacks nor anxiety toward blacks was identified as a mediator in the given relationships. Study 2 (N = 53 non-black minority students) showed that exposure to the empathy-framed news and even to the conflict-framed news increased empathy for blacks and in turn non-black minorities more strongly supported the speech.
Agenda-Setting and Visual Framing in Media Coverage of the Guttenfelder Instagram Photographs from North Korea • Steven Holiday, Brigham Young University; Matthew J. Lewis, Brigham Young University; Rachel Nielsen, Brigham Young University; Harper Anderson, Brigham Young University • In 2013, photojournalist David Guttenfelder became one of the first people granted access to post images of life within North Korea to Instagram in real-time. This quantitative content analysis examines themes portrayed in Guttenfelder’s Instagram photos and whether news sources that featured Guttenfelder’s work proportionately represented the captured themes or perpetuated stereotypical views of North Korean totalitarianism. Results indicate significant differences in some sources’ depictions of totalitarianism. The study discussed potential media and societal implications.
User-Generated Rumors on YouTube • Hyosun Kim, University of North Carolina -CH • To expand the idea of SIDE model in CMC, this study content analyzed comments about the Sandy Hook shooting conspiracy video on YouTube. The findings revealed that visual anonymity was related to the way of opinion expression and the style of interaction with other commenters. However, visual anonymity did not significantly relate to the use of obscene language. Rather, the use of obscene language was significantly related to opinion expression, confirming SIDE effect.
Reading Peer Sexual Norms: A Study of Online Fan Fiction • Wan Chi Leung, University of South Carolina • Fan fiction is a kind of literary work that makes use of established setting or characters from other original works to create new stories, which is particularly popular among young female. A survey of 639 online fan fiction readers was conducted to examine the indirect effects of sex descriptions in fan fiction on the Internet on readers’ sexual attitudes, focusing on how exposure to the sexual descriptions in fan fiction and its feedback mechanism produce an indirect effect on sexual attitudes, through influencing the perceived peer norms. Results show that exposure to sex descriptions in fan fiction significantly predicted perceived exposure of others, which in turn predicted peer sexual norm. Exposure to other readers’ responses significantly predicted perceived homophily with other readers, which also predicted peer sexual norm. A route of indirect effects of reading fan fiction through perceived peer norms is established.
Too good to care: The effect of skill on hostility and aggression following violent video game play • Nicholas Matthews • An experiment tested if higher skilled players would experience diminished aggression related outcomes compared to lower skilled players due to flow state optimization. Specifically, the study observed if higher flow states made narrative-defined game goals more salient, thus reducing focus on the more peripheral violent content. After controlling for the amount, type, and context of violence, higher skilled players experienced lower levels of hostility and aggression related cognitions and greater levels of flow than lower skilled players. Additionally, skill altered players’ perceptions as well, as higher skilled players experienced higher construal levels than lower skilled players.
Operations in the Sky: Analysis of Drone Coverage in US Media • Fauzeya Rahman, UT Austin • Pilotless armed aircraft (drones) are here to stay. A significant component of U.S. counterterrorism strategy, drone strikes have been used both in theaters of war and non-combat areas such as Pakistan and Yemen. Historically, the media has taken the administration’s lead and relied on official frames and sources in war coverage. This paper analyzes The New York Times from 2009-2014 to see if coverage of drone strikes reflected realities on the ground.
The Antecedents of the Consumption of Community-Oriented Communication Channels • Jing Yan; Yalong JIANG • In this article we focused on the consumption of different community-based communication channels. Based on use and gratification approach and the theory of channel complementary, we argued that 1) “needs observed” and “needs obtained” are associated with the consumption of communication channels respectively. “Needs obtained” could contribute more to the consumption of communication channels; 2) the voluntary organizations can be divided into two types: “old” and “new” organization. The new voluntary organizations adopt the emerging “connective action” which relies heavily on the interactive digital media to distribute the interest-articulations and organize activities. So participating in “new” voluntary organizations would be positively associated with Internet use. Data used in this paper is from the PEW Internet and American’s life project (2010). The results showed that both two types of needs are positively associated with community-based Internet use and face to face communication. Comparing to “needs observed”, “needs obtained” has a larger contribution. Participating in “new” voluntary organizations is positively associated with consumption of the community-based Internet use. The results imply that the “needs observed” as the self-report before media use has less impact on media consumption than the “needs obtained” as evaluation of media use. The results also indicate that the type of organizations is also an impact factor on media consumption.
Magazine 2014 Abstracts
Ruth Ebright Finley and The Guidon: The Conservative Feminism of a National Political Women’s Magazine During the Depression • Kathleen Endres, University of Akron • From 1936 to 1938, long-time reporter/editor Ruth Ebright Finley faced a formidable political and journalistic challenge, editing the Women’s National Republican Club’s “political review,” The Guidon. During those years, Finley transformed the quarterly, changing its name, its frequency and its format. But, more importantly, she converted this national women’s political magazine into a voice of conservative feminism. This paper examines a seldom studied and little understood development in American magazine and political history – conservative feminism in the age of the New Deal.
Environmentalism in Transition: Defining an Identity in the Pages of Membership Magazines • Suzannah Evans • The American environmental movement was faced with two challenges in the early 1980s: first, from a hostile political environment thanks to the election of Ronald Reagan, and second, from critics who argued that the movement, with its focus on federal policy and upper-middle-class constituents, had become out of touch. This study uses textual analysis of membership magazines from three major environmental organizations to reveal how organizations grappled with these issues during the 1980s.
Sisterhood is powerful: A model for how women’s lifestyles magazines foster a distinct intimate relationship • Andrea Hall, University of Florida • Among the top 25 consumer magazines, women’s lifestyles magazines have faired better than most. A model is offered that identifies a series of constructs that explain how women’s lifestyle magazine readers are able to develop an intimate relationship with their magazines, making magazines more attractive to female readers by fostering a sense of belonging. The model proposes that women will be influenced a series of constructs. By identifying how women develop this intimacy with print magazines, this research outlines how this can be successfully translated across magazines as women’s magazines transition to new platforms, including on digital tablets.
Public Roles and Private Negotiations: Considering City Magazines’ Public Service and Market Functions • Joy Jenkins, University of Missouri • Editors at city magazines face the same competing loyalties as other local journalists, including sharing information about their cities while considering the interests of their organizations, readers, and advertisers. This study used in-depth interviews with city magazine editors (N = 11) around the country to explore how they navigate public and private interests affecting their work and the implications of these negotiations for their journalistic identity and the perceived functions of their publications in communities.
Debating the Mass Communication Graduate Curriculum: Where Can We Study the Magazine Form? • Carolyn Lepre, Marist College • The number of degrees granted from journalism and mass communication undergraduate programs showed modest increases in recent years across the United States and, despite a lagging economy, even larger increases were seen at the graduate level. Despite this growth, U.S. scholars have long debated the make-up of the “ideal” mass communication graduate curriculum. In particular, educators have contemplated the issue of the focus of the mass communication master’s program. For it is a program’s overall emphasis on either professional practice, teaching or research, or both, that guides curricular decisions. These discussions have special meaning for those interested in the magazine form, both from a research perspective and for those in the professoriate who wish to further enhance the study of magazines in the future. This paper seeks to examine the current curricular trends in mass communication graduate education and how the magazine scholar fits into the larger picture. Mass communication graduate education, including the current structure of master’s and doctoral curricula in the United States and what curricular trends might be forthcoming, will be discussed. Through an examination of trends in theory and research, and a discussion of educational trends, suggestions will be made for what students need to learn to be productive researchers on the magazine form. Educational and communication research will also be discussed, and suggestions presented for future research.
“Lose the Weight in Half the Time”: Dominant Messages in a Decade of Diet and Weight Loss Magazine Advertisements • Suman Mishra, Southern Illinois University; Rebecca Kern, Manhattan College • Through cultivation and critical theory, this study examines a decade (2001-2011) of diet and weight loss advertising content in ten magazines that reach people of different sex, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientations to provide a broad overview of how different groups are being persuaded to lose weight. Using content analysis, the study finds that weight loss advertising primarily shows white/Caucasian women. Black and Hispanic individuals are underrepresented in the ads even though obesity and weight is a bigger problem among Black and Hispanic men and women. Weight loss among men is promoted more often through active dieting methods (e.g., exercise and exercise equipment), and in women, through passive dieting methods (e.g., drinks, diet food and weight-loss supplements). Diet and weight loss among LGBT groups is promoted through various diet products particularly diet beer. Findings of the study are discussed in terms of dominant messages and ideas about body and weight that circulate in the larger culture.
The Women’s Magazine Diet: A Content Analysis of Nutrition and Fitness Articles in Women’s and Women’s Health Magazines • Chelsea Reynolds, University of Minnesota; Susan LoRusso, University of Minnesota • This content analysis quantifies frames, topics, and sources in fitness and nutrition articles (n = 423) published by women’s magazines (Cosmopolitan, Redbook, and Glamour) and women’s health magazines (Health, Shape, and Self) as defined by Standard Rate and Data Service. It also compares frames, topics, and sources against focuses of magazines’ mission statements (health, beauty/fashion, and lifestyle/hybrid). Chi-squares demonstrate there are statistically significant differences in content by magazines’ SRDS genre but not by mission statements.
Fashionable Feminism or Feminist Fashion? Women’s strife for equality as portrayed in Cosmopolitan and Vogue • Mandy Hagseth, University of South Dakota; Miglena Sternadori • This analysis explored the frames most frequently employed by two women’s magazines, Cosmopolitan and Vogue, in referencing feminism in their online content. Four frames emerged: focus on women’s agency, anti-demonization, trivialization, and complexity/confusion. Feminism was occasionally appropriated to sell high-end designer fashion, portrayed as a form of female empowerment. The findings are discussed in the context of their practical implications for magazine editors and theoretical implications for feminist scholars.
Libelous–But True: Another Look at Butts v. Curtis Publishing • David Sumner • The Saturday Evening Post published “The Story of a College Football Fix” in its March 23, 1963, issue. At the time, Wally Butts was the ex-football coach of the University of Georgia, and Paul “Bear” Bryant was the legendary University of Alabama coach. The story alleged that Butts revealed valuable play strategy details to Bryant in a telephone conversation a week before the September 22, 1962, game. The story’s primary source was an Atlanta insurance salesman who, while dialing a public relations firm, was accidentally cut into and overheard the telephone conversation between Butts and Bryant. Butts sued Curtis Publishing for $10 million in libel damages. Bryant later filed a separate suit. On August 20, 1963, a federal jury in Atlanta returned a libel judgment of $3 million in favor of Butts, which was later reduced to $460,000. In 1967, the Supreme Court upheld the verdict in a narrow 5-to-4 vote. Drawing upon extensive primary source documents, this paper argues that the story itself was true, but the title and sidebar were libelous. Wally Butts intentionally revealed valuable play strategy to Bryant. This paper also frames this story within a wider context of libel law. Nothing in the judges’ ruling in three decisions involving Butts v. Curtis Publishing distinguished between the accuracy of the title and sidebar and the accuracy of the story itself. If they had, the weight of evidence behind the veracity of the content should have prevailed.
Law and Policy 2014 Abstracts
Open Competition
Familiar Airspace: Fixing Privacy Torts to Protect Against Drone Intrusions • Courtney Barclay, Syracuse University; Kearston Wesner, University of Minnesota – Duluth • Unmanned aerial vehicles – drones – promise to revolutionize countless industries, not the least of which is journalism. However, a significant concern regarding the commercial use of drones – and other surveillance technology – is privacy. This article discusses the failures of current privacy paradigms. The authors suggest an overhaul of the “reasonable expectation of privacy” standard to reinvigorate privacy protections, a necessary step for the integration of drones into government and commercial surveillance.
Rap Music and the True Threats Quagmire: When Does One Man’s Lyric Become Another’s Crime? • Clay Calvert, University of Florida; Papadelias Sarah, University of Florida; Emma Morehart, University of Florida • This paper examines the complex and unsettled state of the true threats doctrine through the lens of the equally complicated, controversial and multi-faceted musical genre of rap. Rap, although generally protected by the First Amendment, frequently is caught in the crosshairs of criminal prosecutions focusing on whether or not it constitutes a true threat of violence. Ultimately, the paper offers suggestions for how to clarify the doctrinal issues, with rap illustrating and supporting those ideas.
Matters of Public Concern and Outrageous Speech: Exploring the Malleable Boundaries of IIED and Free Speech Three Years After Snyder v. Phelps • Clay Calvert, University of Florida • This paper analyzes how the Supreme Court’s Snyder v. Phelps decision in 2011 is now affecting lawsuits brought against media defendants for intentional infliction of emotional distress. Snyder pivoted largely on the Court’s expansive definition of “public concern.” Using four post-Snyder cases as analytical springboards, the paper examines how Snyder and its conception of public concern are being deployed by both courts and media defense attorneys in IIED cases premised upon the publication of allegedly outrageous speech.
Private Status, Public Ties: University Foundations and Freedom of Information Laws • Alexa Capeloto, John Jay College of Criminal Justice/CUNY • Auxiliaries and foundations have become an increasingly popular, powerful means of buttressing public institutions of higher education in the face of waning state support. In the last three decades a handful of state legislatures and judiciaries have attempted to delineate the status of university-affiliated foundations vis-à-vis Freedom of Information laws. However this review finds that in nearly two-thirds of the country their status remains undecided, potentially pushing large swaths of university-related funding and functions beyond the reach of public access.
Political Culture, Policy Liberalism, Public Opinion and Strength of Journalist’s Privilege in the American States • Casey Carmody, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities; David Pritchard, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee • Although the legal environment for newsgathering varies considerably from state to state in the United States, comparative studies of state press law are rare. Focusing on legal protections for source confidentiality – journalist’s privilege – the present study tested three hypotheses. The first posited that a state’s political culture would be a significant predictor of the strength of the state’s journalist privilege. The second posited that a state’s level of policy liberalism would be a significant predictor of the strength of the state’s journalist privilege. The third posited that public support for journalistic confidentiality within the state would be a significant predictor of the strength of the state’s journalist privilege. Data for state political culture came from Daniel Elazar’ and Ira Sharkansky’s classifications. Data for policy liberalism came from the State and Local Public Policies in the United States research project. Data for public opinion was from a national survey by the Pew Center for the People and the Press. Data on journalist’s privilege came from a content analysis of statutes, court decisions, and administrative orders from 48 states. The results did not support the hypothesis about political culture. The hypotheses involving policy liberalism and public opinion, however, were strongly supported. The study contributes to a richer understanding of American press law by concluding that legal standards favoring a freer flow of information are more likely to be found in states with higher levels of policy liberalism and public support for journalistic confidentiality.
Rube Goldberg-Like Contrivances and Broadcasting: The Litigation Challenging Aereo • Kevin Delaney, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • The broadcast industry has been abuzz over Aereo, a company that streams broadcast content without a license over the Internet to subscribers. The nation’s broadcasters have sought to enjoin Aereo by arguing that Aereo’s service violates their right under the Copyright Act of 1976 to perform works publicly. This paper explores Aereo’s service in the context of the public performance right and offers an argument for how courts should interpret the public performance right.
The Espionage Act, the Obama Administration & Freedom of the Press: Two Case Studies • Ralph Engelman, LIU Brooklyn • The Obama Administration has made unprecedented use of the Espionage Act of 1917 to prosecute government officials who leak classified information pertaining to national security to the press. After placing the Act in historical context, the study examines two such prosecutions initiated in 2010. The two cases have troubling implications for freedom of the press, especially the ability of reporters to access and protect confidential sources. In the first case, Thomas A. Drake, a whistleblower at the National Security Agency (NSA), was indicted under the Espionage Act for his communication with reporter Siobhan Gorman of the Baltimore Sun. He eventually pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor without jail time after the government dropped the most serious charges. In the second case, the Justice Department targeted Stephen Jin-Woo Kim, who worked at the State Department and leaked secret information about North Korea’s nuclear program to reporter James Rosen of Fox News. Kim ultimately pled guilty to one count and received a 13-month prison term. Both cases had significant ramifications. Thomas Drake’s ordeal influenced Edward Snowden’s decision to release NSA documents abroad instead of through domestic channels. The government’s characterization of James Rosen as a possible “co-conspirator” of Kim’s, in a warrant application to access the reporter’s email accounts, prompted a firestorm of criticism by press organizations. The paper concludes that the Drake and Kim cases substantiate calls to replace the Espionage Act with new legislation that will more effectively safeguard both government secrets and press freedom.
New Models and Conflicts in the Interconnection and Delivery of Internet-mediated Content • Rob Frieden, Penn State University • This paper examines the dramatic changes in interconnection and compensation and compensation agreements between content providers and carriers resulting from increasing reliance on the Internet for video delivery to consumers. It identifies emerging models, in which Internet Service Providers (“ISPs”) seek to collect payments from both end users and content providers. While supportive of commercially negotiated agreements between concerned parties, the paper recommends that regulators ensure transparent network management practices by disclosing special arrangements with individual content providers. The paper also suggests ways for regulators to prevent retail ISPs, providing the last kilometer of service, from creating a bottleneck as a way to force surcharge payments from upstream carriers and content providers. The paper also will examine existing and likely future interconnection disputes with an eye toward identifying where conflicts will arise and how they can get resolved. The paper supports commercially driven negotiations, like those occurring between television broadcasters and cable television operators. However, regulatory authorities may need to arbitrate and promote settlements when now-essential Internet access becomes blocked or congested. The paper concludes that ISPs should have the opportunity to provide both end users and content sources alternatives to “best efforts” content delivery, but that they should not create artificial congestion as justification for additional compensation.
Net Bias and the Treatment of “Mission-Critical” Bits • Rob Frieden, Penn State University • This paper assesses whether and how Internet Service Providers (“ISPS”) can demand paid service enhancements for particular types of traffic and customers without disadvantaging competitors and harming consumers. It will use the recent paid peering agreement between Netflix and Comcast as a case study as well as other instances where parties negotiate carriage of “mission critical” bits and “must see” television. The paper concludes that the Federal Communications Commission lacks jurisdiction to regulate ISP price and quality of service discrimination. However, the paper also concludes that network bias does not always serve anticompetitive goals, nor does it always result in an unlevel competitive playing field. The paper identifies instances where a regulatory referee remains necessary to offer timely resolution of increasingly frequent disputes about what constitutes fair network bias particularly for the carriage of bandwidth intensive video content.
Evaluating Intent in True Threats Cases: The Importance of Context to Threatening Internet Messages • Brooks Fuller • Following the Supreme Court’s most recent ruling on the true threats doctrine, Virginia v. Black, significant conflict emerged among lower courts. Speakers’ use of Internet forums and social networking websites to threaten others raises significant questions regarding the application of the true threats doctrine to modern modes of communication. This paper utilizes legal research methods to examine the problematic relationship between Internet speech and true threats, and the inconsistent application of the true threats doctrine.
Does Access to Environmental Information have a Critical Problem?: Interpretation of FOIA’s Exemption 4 after the Critical Mass III Decision • Kylah Hedding, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • This paper then analyzes how Exemption 4 cases have been decided in the federal appeals courts since the Critical Mass III decision in 1992. It first provides a background of the FOIA and Exemption 4, including the National Parks and Critical Mass decisions in the District of Columbia Circuit. This is followed by a review of the current scholarship centered around how FOIA requests and Exemption 4 denials are implemented, the confusion surrounding Exemption 4, and recommendations for improvements.
Eyes in the Skies: First Amendment Implications of the Domestic Drone Ban as Applied to Newsgathering • Sean Lawson, University of Utah; Cynthia Love; Avery Holton, University of Utah • Unmanned aircraft systems (UASs), commonly referred to as “drones,” have rocketed to public attention in the last decade largely as a result of the U.S. military’s use of this technology in the “war on terror.” As UASs are put to a growing number of uses in the domestic airspace, they have become the latest cause of technopanic. As a result, the predominant response from news media and other actors has been fear, legislation, and regulation. In 2007, the FAA attempted to ban the commercial use of UAS. Efforts to enforce this ban have included sending dozens of cease and desist letters, and even one attempt to levy a $10,000 fine. Most often, these UAS operators have been engaging in aerial photography, sometimes for newsgathering purposes. To date, little attention has been paid to the First Amendment implications of the ban. This article argues that aerial photography with drones, whether commercial or not, is protected First Amendment activity. This is particularly the case when the aerial photography is used for newsgathering purposes, as it has been in a number of instances where the FAA has taken enforcement action. As currently formulated, the FAA’s blanket ban on commercial use of UAS, which it asserts includes aerial photography and news gathering, constitutes a content-based restriction and a prior restraint on speech that is unconstitutional. The FAA must take First Amendment protected uses of this technology into account as it proceeds with meeting its Congressional mandate to promulgate rules for domestic UASs.
The Heckler’s Veto: Applying an on-the-street doctrine to Internet communications • Brett Johnson, University of Minnesota • The term “heckler’s veto” has been used in reference to the power of private intermediaries to stifle speech that audiences vociferously deem too extreme to belong in online discourse. This paper looks at First Amendment theory and doctrine surrounding the term. The paper’s goal is to better understand the benefits and limitations of using this government-specific term in the context of extreme speech in intermediary-driven Internet communications. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for intermediaries and hecklers.
“Execute not Pardon”: The Pussy Riot Case, Political Speech and Blasphemy in Russian Law • Volha Kananovich, University of Iowa • This paper explores the issue of freedom of expression in Russia through the lens of the Pussy Riot blasphemy case (2012). By blending legal analysis with historically and culturally informed exploration, this paper examines the reasoning used by Russian law to authorize limitations on freedom of religiously contextualized speech and discusses its implications for expanding the “forbidden ground” for legitimate political debate in contemporary Russia.
Antitrust Exemptions, Football, and an (anti)Competitive Marketplace: An Analysis of the Future of the Relationship Between NFL Sunday Ticket and DirecTV • Lauren Anderson, Florida State University; Erin Looney, Florida State University • The NFL’s billion-dollar deal with DirecTV for NFL Sunday Ticket (Sunday Ticket) ends after the 2014 season, and even as subscription prices have fallen, the out-of-market package is still out of reach for many consumers. This paper examines related case law and broadcast regulation and uses competition as a framework for exploring DirecTV and the NFL’s options for providing out-of-market football games to consumers when the existing contract expires.
Kicking the Tires of First Amendment Theory: Noncommercial Versus Commercial Falsehood in Supreme Court Opinions • Carmen Maye, University of South Carolina • Criminal sanctions may be on the horizon for deceptive commercial speech. If so, the ability to distinguish deceptive, commercial messages from nondeceptive, noncommercial messages assumes even greater significance at a time when doing so is becoming increasingly difficult. It may be time for a new approach to the regulation of deceptive commercial speech. For perspective, this paper examines the Court’s disparate treatment of deceptive commercial speech and its theoretical influences, as articulated in Court opinions.
Child Rearing and the First Amendment • Minch Minchin • This student paper examines the First Amendment right of minors to receive speech within the context of parental rights and the ostensible governmental interest of protecting children from harmful materials. Drawing from judicial precedent, contemporary scholarship and application of free-speech theory, this paper contends that the harms foisted upon free-speech rights of children and parental rights of adults generally outweigh any benefits produced by state attempts to keep minors ignorant about potentially offensive ideas.
The “Sovereigns of Cyberspace” and State Action • Jonathan Peters, University of Dayton • This paper contributes to the body of knowledge about online free speech and the ongoing policy discussion about designing a governance structure for a single and global Internet. It explores the state action doctrine in the U.S., examining (1) how it distinguishes the public and private spheres, and (2) whether it forecloses the First Amendment’s application to private Internet companies. This paper also suggests a state action theory suitable for the digital world.
“Peculiarly the ‘Marketplace of Ideas'”: A Case Against Hazelwood in the University • Kristy Roschke • The U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly acknowledged the public university as a “marketplace of ideas,” however lower court decisions have questioned how broad university students’ First Amendment rights should be. At the center of the conflict is the 1988 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier, a high school student speech case that increased school officials’ control over school-sponsored speech. This paper argues that by not considering the special characteristics of the university, courts have misapplied Hazelwood in six cases in the past decade, resulting in an erosion of the marketplace of ideas on the university campus.
Cause and Effect: The Free Speech Transformation as Scientific Revolution • Joseph Russomanno • Just as the social sciences helped to expose the fallacy of direct, cause-and-effect speech, they also contributed to the recognition that speech-restrictive laws had been written and judged from the standpoint that words may be the explicit cause of undesirable behavior. This paper examines the transformation in free speech doctrine, its parallel track with the emergence of the social sciences and views the change as a paradigm shift within the context of Kuhnian scientific revolution.
The Corporation in the Marketplace of Ideas • Matthew Telleen, Elizabethtown College • In 2010, the Supreme Court decided Citizens United v. FEC. In this paper, the framework of law and economics is utilized to analyze the value of corporate political speech to the marketplace of ideas. Tracing the history of Supreme Court decisions dealing with corporate political speech, variables can be isolated that deal with each component of speech in the marketplace, the speech itself (the product), the speaker (the producer), and the audience (the consumers).
Broadband Penetration: A Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) Approach • Hsin-yi Tsai • This study aims to understand what kind of policies/regulations and economic factors are necessary and/or sufficient for having higher broadband penetration rates. By using fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA), we analyzed the necessary and sufficient conditions that resulted in higher broadband penetration in OECD countries. In order to have higher broadband penetration rates, the main necessary condition was that countries did not include broadband into their universal service objectives. The examination of sufficient conditions revealed that higher population density, higher education, higher income, higher market concentration and reliance on market forces (no inclusion of broadband universal service objectives) were sufficient for higher broadband penetration rates. Lower income, lower population density, and lower education were present in all countries that exhibited lower broadband penetration. However, having lower population density, lower income, and lower education did not necessarily imply lower broadband penetration. This study found that countries characterized by lower income and lower population density would be able to achieve high broadband penetration rates if they had high education, higher market concentration, and policies that require local loop unbundling (LLU) and that support public private partnerships (PPP).
Video Games and NCAA Athletes: Resolving a Modern Threat to the First Amendment • Alexander Vlisides, University of Minnesota • A group of current and former NCAA student-athletes recently settled their claims with video game maker Electronic Arts for $40 million. Both the Third and Ninth U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals ruled that the First Amendment did not protect use of the athlete’s likenesses in a football video game. However these cases fail to give a clear answer to a question that has plagued content producers for decades: when does the First Amendment protect the use of a person’s likeness against right of publicity claims? This paper answers this question by performing a close reading of the Supreme Court’s one case addressing right of publicity, Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard. The Supreme Court’s analysis identifies the government’s interests in protecting right of publicity by establishing its foundation in the marketplace theory of the First Amendment. Based on this analysis, the paper scrutinizes the three major right of publicity tests used by lower courts, finding that they fail to serve the interests enumerated by the Supreme Court. The tests have led to results inconsistent with the marketplace theory adopted by the Supreme Court and which threaten traditionally protected creative works. The paper thus proposed a two-tiered right of publicity test. The test first distinguishes commercial from noncommercial speech by applying an existing Supreme Court test, and then evaluates noncommercial speech by balancing the marketplace interests identified in Zacchini. Reevaluating the right of publicity doctrine will lead to more consistent results and greater protection for expressive works.
The Jamaican Access Law and the Trade Secrets Exemptions: Decisions of the Tribunal • Roxanne Watson, University of South Florida • The Jamaican Access to Information Act, the third access law to be passed in the British Caribbean, was passed in 2002 and implemented in 2004. Because of the infancy of the act, its boundaries have not been fully determined by the court. In the 12 years since this statute has been in operation the Access to Information Tribunal has made a eight decisions touching on the balance between the right to access government held information and the exemption for trade secrets and confidential business information. This paper outlines the Tribunal’s decisions and reasonings relating to the confidential business exemption in order to ascertain the direction of the law as it relates to access in these areas.
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